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Reaction Time Distribution Analysis of Neuropsychological Performance in an ADHD Sample
Abstract
Differences in reaction time (RT) variability have been documented between children with and without Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Most previous research has utilized estimates of normal distributions to examine variability. Using a nontraditional approach, the present study evaluated RT distributions on the Conners' Continuous Performance Test in children and adolescents from the Multimodal Treatment Study of ADHD sample compared to a matched sample of normal controls (n = 65 pairs). The ex-Gaussian curve was used to model RT and RT variability. Children with ADHD demonstrated faster RT associated with the normal portion of the curve and a greater proportion of abnormally slow responses associated with the exponential portion of the curve. These results contradict previous interpretation that children with ADHD have slower than normal responding and demonstrate why slower RT is found when estimates of variability assume normal Gaussian distributions. Further, results of this study suggest that the greater number of abnormally long RTs of children with ADHD reflect attentional lapses on some but not all trials.
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In the citing paper
“Research using ex-Gaussian parameters has shown that ADHD-related RTV is largely the result of an elevation in tau [10,13,32].”
From Reaction Time Variability in ADHD: A Review (2012) · cites this paper as [10]
In the citing paper
“In ADHD research, RTV in ADHD is typically interpreted (at least implicitly) as reflecting occasional lapses in attention”
From Reaction Time Variability in ADHD: A Review (2012) · cites this paper as [10]
In the citing paper
“In a more recent study using a Go/No-go (“continuous performance”) task designed to assess response (including inhibitory) control, investigators found ADHD was associated with abnormalities in both the normal (increased sigma) and exponential (increased tau) components of reaction time distribution (Hervey et al., 2006).”
From Increased intra-individual reaction time variability in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder across response inhibition tasks with different cognitive demands (2009) · cites this paper as Hervey et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“Analyses characterizing ISV in ADHD has revealed a pattern of occasional responses with unusually long reaction time, with the majority of responses being comparable to comparison groups (Castellanos et al., 2005; Hervey et al., 2006; Leth-Steensen, King Elbaz, & Douglas, 2000).”
From Increased intra-individual reaction time variability in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder across response inhibition tasks with different cognitive demands (2009) · cites this paper as Hervey et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“Statistical analyses utilizing comparison of group means and variability (i.e., standard deviation), may mask such responses by treating them as outliers or by treating them as “noise” that becomes averaged with other responses (Hervey et al., 2006).”
From Increased intra-individual reaction time variability in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder across response inhibition tasks with different cognitive demands (2009) · cites this paper as Hervey et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“However, our findings and those generated by Hervey et al. (2006) indicate that under conditions requiring higher degrees of response control, increased variability in ADHD is present throughout the RT distribution, regardless of ADHD subtype, reflecting inefficiency in neural mechanisms critical to engaging a state of preparedness to respond.”
From Increased intra-individual reaction time variability in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder across response inhibition tasks with different cognitive demands (2009) · cites this paper as Hervey et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“Our findings of increases in normal (i.e., sigma) as well as exponential (i.e., tau) variability are consistent with that seen in a prior study of ADHD in which ex-Gaussian analysis was applied to a different Go/No-go task (Hervey et al., 2006); in that study children with ADHD also showed increased variability in both the normal and exponential portions of the RT distribution.”
From Increased intra-individual reaction time variability in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder across response inhibition tasks with different cognitive demands (2009) · cites this paper as Hervey et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“an Ex-Gaussian analysis revealed that, compared with controls, the ADHD group had lower estimates of m (ie, faster RTs) but a greater t (ie, more long RTs).”
From Understanding the Effects of Stimulant Medications on Cognition in Individuals with Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: A Decade of Progress (2011) · cites this paper as Hervey et al (2006)
In the citing paper
“On the basis of standard analyses, the ADHD group had a longer MRT and greater SD and skewness.”
From Understanding the Effects of Stimulant Medications on Cognition in Individuals with Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: A Decade of Progress (2011) · cites this paper as Hervey et al (2006)
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“This would also provide the opportunity for direct theoretical testing, something that several authors have suggested is highly important for advancements in the study of ADHD (Castellanos & Tannock, 2002; Sergeant, 2000).”
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Cited by
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Competition between functional brain networks mediates behavioral variability
Kelly, A. M. C., Uddin, L. Q., Biswal, B. B., Castellanos, F. X., & Milham, M. P. (2008) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2007.08.008 · Cited by 1,287
“…populations characterized by increased IIV, the shape of individual response time distributions is predominantly determined by the presence of a large number of abnormally long RTs—an exaggerated positive skew, reflecting attentional lapses (Hervey et al., 2006; Leth-Steensen et al., 2000).”
BackgroundMethodSonuga-Barke, E. J. S., & Castellanos, F. X. (2007) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2007.02.005 · Cited by 890
“( 2005 ) recently employed signal processing techniques such as Fast Fourier , and Wavelet Analysis to explore the temporal structure of these long RTs within the general distribution of RTs ( Castellanos et al .”
ResultInfluentialEffective Analysis of Reaction Time Data
Whelan, R. (2008) · The Psychological Record · doi:10.1007/bf03395630 · Cited by 847
Reaction time variability in ADHD: A meta-analytic review of 319 studies
Kofler, M. J., Rapport, M. D., Sarver, D. E., Raiker, J. S., Orban, S. A., Friedman, L. M., & Kolomeyer, E. G. (2013) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2013.06.001 · Cited by 648
“In addition, RT variability is frequently attributed to periodic lapses in attention (e.g., Hervey et al., 2006); however, Schmiedek et al. (2007) investigated this claim and concluded that attentional lapse models could not account for RT variability.”
BackgroundCheyne, J. A., Solman, G. J. F., Carriere, J. S. A., & Smilek, D. (2009) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2008.12.009 · Cited by 411
“ADHD individuals often have much more variable RTs (Klein, Wendling, Huettner, Ruder, & Peper, 2006) and have been reported to have, occasionally, extremely long RTs (Hervey et al., 2006).”
Evaluating vigilance deficits in ADHD: A meta-analysis of CPT performance.
Huang-Pollock, C. L., Karalunas, S. L., Tam, H., & Moore, A. N. (2012) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0027205 · Cited by 359
“…number of abnormally slow RTs in the tail of the distribution rather than slower/more variable RTs within the component of the distribution that represents the central tendency (Epstein et al., 2011; Hervey et al., 2006; Spencer et al., 2009; Williams, Strauss, Hultsch, Hunter, & Tannock, 2007).”
BackgroundOn the linear relation between the mean and the standard deviation of a response time distribution.
Wagenmakers, E., & Brown, S. D. (2007) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.114.3.830 · Cited by 371
“…of a Response Time Distribution Eric-Jan Wagenmakers University of Amsterdam Scott Brown University of Newcastle Although it is generally accepted that the spread of a response time (RT) distribution increases with the mean, the precise nature of this relation remains relatively unexplored.”
BackgroundReaction Time Variability in ADHD: A Review
Tamm, L., Narad, M. E., Antonini, T. N., O'Brien, K. M., Hawk, L. W., & Epstein, J. N. (2012) · Neurotherapeutics · doi:10.1007/s13311-012-0138-5 · Cited by 324
“Hypotheses emphasizing several factors have been proposed: a temporal processing deficit [34], a deficit in the ability to appropriately modulate very low-frequency fluctuations in neuronal activity [35], inefficiency in the deployment of attention by executive control processes [36], deficit of sustained attention [1…”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citationA lack of default network suppression is linked to increased distractibility in ADHD
Fassbender, C., Zhang, H., Buzy, W. M., Cortes, C. R., Mizuiri, D., Beckett, L., & Schweitzer, J. B. (2009) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2009.02.070 · Cited by 316
“…emerge between ADHD and control participants in the exponential component of the ex-Gaussian curve which reflects a greater number of particularly slow RTs, represented by the right tail of the distribution (Buzy et al., 2009; Epstein et al., 2006; Hervey et al., 2006; Leth-Steensen et al., 2000).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialKaralunas, S. L., Geurts, H. M., Konrad, K., Bender, S., & Nigg, J. T. (2014) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.12217 · Cited by 278
“First, although mean RT and RT variability are often assumed to represent different cognitive mechanisms (e.g. speed and attention lapses, Hervey et al., 2006; Leth-Steensen, Elbaz, & Douglas, 2000; Wagenmakers, Grasman, & Molenaar, 2005), SDRT is typically highly correlated with mean RT (r between…”
Swanson, J., Baler, R. D., & Volkow, N. D. (2011) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/npp.2010.160 · Cited by 252
Self-citationNeural variability: friend or foe?
Dinstein, I., Heeger, D. J., & Behrmann, M. (2015) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2015.04.005 · Cited by 266
Vaurio, R. G., Simmonds, D. J., & Mostofsky, S. H. (2009) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2009.01.022 · Cited by 240
Epstein, J. N., Langberg, J. M., Rosen, P. J., Graham, A., Narad, M. E., Antonini, T. N., Brinkman, W. B., Froehlich, T., Simon, J. O., & Altaye, M. (2011) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/a0022155 · Cited by 233
Self-citationIntra-individual variability in ADHD, autism spectrum disorders and Tourette's syndrome
Geurts, H. M., Grasman, R. P. P. P., Verté, S., Oosterlaan, J., Roeyers, H., van Kammen, S. M., & Sergeant, J. A. (2008) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2008.06.013 · Cited by 192
Decomposing Intra-Subject Variability in Children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
Di Martino, A., Ghaffari, M., Curchack, J., Reiss, P., Hyde, C., Vannucci, M., Petkova, E., Klein, D. F., & Castellanos, F. X. (2008) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2008.03.008 · Cited by 146
Assessing medication effects in the MTA study using neuropsychological outcomes
Epstein, J. N., Keith Conners, C., Hervey, A. S., Tonev, S. T., Eugene Arnold, L., Abikoff, H. B., Elliott, G., Greenhill, L. L., Hechtman, L., Hoagwood, K., et al. (2006) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2005.01469.x · Cited by 139
Self-citationChristiansen, L., Beck, M. M., Bilenberg, N., Wienecke, J., Astrup, A. V., & Lundbye‐Jensen, J. (2019) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm8060841 · Cited by 168
Mary, A., Slama, H., Mousty, P., Massat, I., Capiau, T., Drabs, V., & Peigneux, P. (2016) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2015.1012491 · Cited by 120
“This higher variability corroborates the description of a greater proportion of abnormally slower responses that have already been made in similar reports studying children with ADHD (Drechsler et al., 2005; Hervey et al., 2006; Leth-Steensen, King Elbaz, & Douglas, 2000).”
BackgroundResultSustained attention in adult ADHD: time-on-task effects of various measures of attention
Tucha, L., Fuermaier, A., Koerts, J., Buggenthin, R., Aschenbrenner, S., Weisbrod, M., Thome, J., Lange, K., & Tucha, O. (2015) · Journal of neural transmission · doi:10.1007/s00702-015-1426-0 · Cited by 102
“It was speculated that ISI may exert its effect by providing more opportunity for distraction or off-task behavior, or possibly by changing the cognitive energy level of individuals (Hervey et al. 2006).”
BackgroundMetin, B., Roeyers, H., Wiersema, J. R., van der Meere, J., & Sonuga-Barke, E. (2012) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2012.08.023 · Cited by 121
“The between-study ES heterogeneity was also significant (Q(22)=54.”
Berger, I., Slobodin, O., & Cassuto, H. (2016) · Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology · doi:10.1093/arclin/acw101 · Cited by 131
Klarborg, B., Madsen, K. S., Vestergaard, M. D., Skimminge, A., Jernigan, T. L., & Baaré, W. F. C. (2012) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.22139 · Cited by 114
“This approach was preferred to using the standard error of the mean of RTs, i.e., the SD divided by the square root of number of trials [Conners et al., 2003; Epstein et al., 2003; Hervey et al., 2006; Mabbott et al., 2006; Ogg et al., 2008; Yeo et al., 2003].”
MethodKaralunas, S. L., Huang-Pollock, C. L., & Nigg, J. T. (2012) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/a0029936 · Cited by 104
“When tasks call for quick, accurate response decisions, children with ADHD are typically less accurate, slower, and have more variable reaction times (RTs) compared to their same aged peers (Castellanos et al., 2005; Douglas, 1999; Hervey et al., 2006; Kuntsi & Stevenson, 2001; Leth-Steensen, Elbaz, & Douglas, 2000).”
Buzy, W. M., Medoff, D. R., & Schweitzer, J. B. (2009) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297040802646991 · Cited by 108
“…2007; Shallice et al., 2002), choice reaction time (Geurts et al., 2007; Leth-Steensen, Elbaz, & Douglas, 2000), and Go/No-Go or continuous performance (CPT; Epstein et al., 2006; Heiser et al., 2004; Hervey et al., 2006; Klein et al., 2006; Kuntsi et al., 2005; Teicher, Ito, Glod, & Barber, 1996).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialDysfunctional cognitive control and reward processing in adolescents with Internet gaming disorder
Li, Q., Wang, Y., Zhong, Y. J., Dai, W., Zheng, Y., Sun, Y., & Liu, X. (2019) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/psyp.13469 · Cited by 110
Cognitive enhancers for the treatment of ADHD
Bidwell, L. C., McClernon, F. J., & Kollins, S. H. (2011) · Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.pbb.2011.05.002 · Cited by 104
“…RT is controlled, andmore complex statistical models of RT distributions suggest that increased response variability may be due to a relatively small number of trials with extremely long RTs rather than systematically greater response variability across all trials (Hervey et al., 2006).”
BackgroundKing, J. A., Colla, M., Braß, M., Heuser, I., & von Cramon, D. (2007) · Behavioral and Brain Functions · doi:10.1186/1744-9081-3-42 · Cited by 109
Integrating Impairments in Reaction Time and Executive Function Using a Diffusion Model Framework
Karalunas, S. L., & Huang‐Pollock, C. L. (2013) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-013-9715-2 · Cited by 107
“Diffusion model When speeded responses are required, children with ADHD often respond less accurately, are slower, and have more variable reaction times (RTs) compared to their same-aged peers (Castellanos et al. 2005; Douglas 1999; Hervey et al. 2006; Kuntsi and Stevenson 2001; Leth-Steensen et al. 2000).”
InfluentialAltered spontaneous low frequency brain activity in Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
Helps, S. K., Broyd, S. J., James, C. J., Karl, A., Chen, W., & Sonuga-Barke, E. J. S. (2010) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2010.01.057 · Cited by 99
A behavioral neuroenergetics theory of ADHD
Killeen, P. R., Russell, V. A., & Sergeant, J. A. (2013) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.02.011 · Cited by 97
Swanson, J. M., Arnold, L. E., KRAEMER, H. C., Hechtman, L. T., Molina, B. S. G., Hinshaw, S. P., Vitiello, B., Jensen, P. S., Steinhoff, K., Lerner, M., et al. (2008) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/1087054708319525 · Cited by 97
Self-citationSpencer, S. V., Hawk, L. W., Richards, J. B., Shiels, K., Pelham, W. E., & Waxmonsky, J. G. (2009) · Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10802-009-9316-2 · Cited by 93
“Several studies that have examined the shapes of RT distributions have used ex-Gaussian models to examine response distributions in ADHD (Douglas, 1999; Epstein et al., 2006; Hervey et al., 2006; Leth-Steensen et al., 2000).”
MethodResultCastellanos, F. X., Kelly, C., & Milham, M. P. (2009) · The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/070674370905401003 · Cited by 88
“Such findings have been demonstrated in ADHD across tests of sustained attention, attentional control,(64) motor sequencing and control, inhibitory control, time perception,(82) and choice RT tasks.(68,83,84)”
BackgroundData trimming procedure can eliminate bilingual cognitive advantage
Zhou, B., & Krott, A. (2015) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-015-0981-6 · Cited by 85
Epstein, J. N., Brinkman, W. B., Froehlich, T., Langberg, J. M., Narad, M. E., Antonini, T. N., Shiels, K., Simon, J. O., & Altaye, M. (2011) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/npp.2010.243 · Cited by 78
“Recently, ex-Gaussian indicators (e.g., tau) have been used to describe RT variability and demonstrate that RT variability among children with ADHD is caused by increased positive skew in the RT distribution (Hervey et al , 2006; Leth-Steensen et al , 2000; Vaurio et al , 2009).”
Self-citationThe Role of Speed in ADHD-Related Working Memory Deficits
Weigard, A. S., & Huang‐Pollock, C. L. (2016) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/2167702616668320 · Cited by 83
“RTs of children with ADHD on a variety of tasks are characteristically slower and more variable than those of typically developing children (Castellanos et al., 2005; Hervey et al., 2006; Holdnack, Moberg, Arnold, Gur, & Gur, 1995; Katz, Brown, Roth, & Beers, 2011; Klimkeit, Mattingly, Sheppard, Lee, & Bradshaw, 2005;…”
BackgroundKumar, A., McMahon, G., Reid, T., & Jain, N. (2020) · IEEE Control Systems · doi:10.1109/mcs.2020.3019151 · Cited by 58
“One of the most widely employed distribution for RT data has been an exponentially modified Gaussian (or ex-Gaussian) distribution [64], [77]–[83], defined as the convolution of an exponential distribution with a Gaussian distribution.”
BackgroundIncreased ongoing neural variability in ADHD
Gonen-Yaacovi, G., Arazi, A., Shahar, N., Karmon-Presser, A., Haar, S., Meiran, N., & Dinstein, I. (2016) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2016.04.010 · Cited by 70
Conners’ Continuous Performance Test (CPT)
Conners, C. K., & Sitarenios, G. (2010) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-0-387-79948-3_1535 · Cited by 69
Self-citationMühlberger, A., Jekel, K., Probst, T., Schecklmann, M., Conzelmann, A., Andreatta, M., Rizzo, A. A., Pauli, P., & Romanos, M. (2016) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/1087054716647480 · Cited by 74
Martínez, L., Sarmiento, E. L. P., Satler, C. E., Tavares, M. C. H., & Tomaz, C. A. B. (2016) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01230 · Cited by 71
Van De Voorde, S., Roeyers, H., Verté, S., & Wiersema, J. R. (2010) · Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/13803390903066865 · Cited by 64
“of attentional lapses during information processing (Hervey et al., 2006; Leth-Steensen, Elbaz, & Douglas, 2000) or an inability to efficiently regulate one’s activa-”
BackgroundDiane Swick, A., Honzel, N., Larsen, J., & Ashley, V. (2013) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2013.10.008 · Cited by 66
Sander, C., Arns, M., Olbrich, S., & Hegerl, U. (2010) · Clinical Neurophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.clinph.2010.03.021 · Cited by 64
“In the presence of faster reaction times, such attentional lapses do result in instances of prolonged reaction times (Leth-Steenson et al., 2000), making it difficult to detect changes with the usual statistics (Castellanos and Tannock, 2002; Hervey et al., 2006).”
Gustafson, S. J., McCreery, R., Hoover, B. M., Kopun, J., & Stelmachowicz, P. (2014) · Ear and Hearing · doi:10.1097/01.aud.0000440715.85844.b8 · Cited by 63
“In addition, results from previous studies have cautioned the analysis of raw response time data due to the variability of shift, scale, and shape of the distributions across subjects (Ratliff 1979; Heathcote et al. 1991; Rouder et al. 2003; Hervey et al. 2006; Whelan 2008).”
ResultIntraindividual Variability in Inhibitory Function in Adults with ADHD – An Ex-Gaussian Approach
Gmehlin, D., Fuermaier, A. B. M., Walther, S., Debelak, R., Rentrop, M., Westermann, C., Sharma, A., Tucha, L., Koerts, J., Tucha, O. M., et al. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0112298 · Cited by 66
“Against the background of former results observed in cADHD indicating faster and possibly more impulsive responses [19, 25], the present data are compatible with a decrease of at least overt inhibitory dysfunction with age.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialStriatal Dopamine Influences the Default Mode Network to Affect Shifting between Object Features
Dang, L. C., Donde, A., Madison, C. M., O’Neil, J. P., & Jagust, W. J. (2012) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn_a_00252 · Cited by 61
“Measures of intraindividual variability such as RTSD have been shown to provide information not detectable by themean andmay even be better at differentiating interindividual variability (Hervey et al., 2006; Klein, Wendling, Huettner, Ruder, & Peper, 2006; MacDonald, Nyberg, & Backman, 2006).”
Lin, H., Gau, S. S., Hwang-Gu, S.-L., Shang, C., Wu, M. Y., & Tseng, W. I. (2013) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291713001955 · Cited by 61
“2003) go/no-go paradigm is a non-X type CPT test offering plenty of RT series to analyse intra-individual response variability, especially for ADHD (Hervey et al. 2006).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialBehavioral correlates of reaction time variability in children with and without ADHD.
Antonini, T. N., Narad, M. E., Langberg, J. M., & Epstein, J. N. (2013) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/a0032071 · Cited by 56
“Several investigators have also posited that periods of long reaction times are indicative of lapses in attention (Leth-Steensen et al., 2000; Hervey et al., 2006), although this remains unsubstantiated.”
BackgroundSelf-citationHwang, J. H., Kim, S. H., Park, C. S., Bang, S. A., & Kim, S. E. (2010) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2010.03.013 · Cited by 55
Roshani, F., Piri, R., Malek, A., Michel, T. M., & Vafaee, M. S. (2019) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2019.112494 · Cited by 65
Adamo, N., Huo, L., Adelsberg, S., Petkova, E., Castellanos, F. X., & Di Martino, A. (2014) · European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s00787-013-0428-4 · Cited by 55
Attention Deficits in Children With Combined Autism and ADHD: A CPT Study
Lundervold, A. J., Stickert, M., Hysing, M., Sørensen, L., Gillberg, C., & Posserud, M.-B. (2016) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/1087054712453168 · Cited by 55
Post-Error Slowing in Patients With ADHD
Balogh, L., & Czobor, P. (2014) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/1087054714528043 · Cited by 59
“, 2012) or mean reaction time (Hervey et al., 2006).”
Gallagher, P., Nilsson, J., Finkelmeyer, A. E., Goshawk, M., Macritchie, K., Lloyd, A. J., Thompson, J., Porter, R., Young, A. H., Ferrier, I. N., et al. (2015) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291715000926 · Cited by 53
Wolfers, T., Onnink, A. M. H., Zwiers, M. P., Arias-Vasquez, A., Hoogman, M., Mostert, J. C., Kan, C. C., Slaats-Willemse, D., Buitelaar, J. K., & Franke, B. (2015) · Journal of Psychiatry and Neuroscience · doi:10.1503/jpn.140154 · Cited by 52
Cognitive Load Differentially Impacts Response Control in Girls and Boys with ADHD
Seymour, K. E., Mostofsky, S. H., & Rosch, K. S. (2015) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-015-9976-z · Cited by 57
Shin, Y. S., Kim, S. N., Shin, N. Y., Jung, W. H., Hur, J., Byun, M. S., Jang, J. H., An, S. K., & Kwon, J. S. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0078354 · Cited by 50
“IIV provides information regarding cognitive functioning that is not detectable by average measures of performance [10] and can better discriminate cognitively impaired and clinical groups from normal controls [11].”
BackgroundSustained attention following traumatic brain injury: Use of the Psychomotor Vigilance Task
Sinclair, K. L., Ponsford, J. L., Rajaratnam, S. M. W., & Anderson, C. (2013) · Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/13803395.2012.762340 · Cited by 50
“…insight into the processes of sustained attention than group mean analyses alone (Edinger, Means, Carney, & Krystal, 2008; Epstein et al., 2009; Hervey et al., 2006; Hultsch, MacDonald, & Dixon, 2002; Leth-Steensen, Elbaz, & Douglas, 2000; Myerson et al., 2007; Rouder et al., 2005; Slovarp et…”
BackgroundLin, H., Lee, P., Chang, W., & Hong, F. (2014) · American Journal of Occupational Therapy · doi:10.5014/ajot.2014.009365 · Cited by 49
“The other two variables (RT and RT variability) are also believed to provide additional information related to attentional performance (Hervey et al., 2006; Hurks et al., 2005; Johnson, Kelly, et al., 2007).”
Conners’ Continuous Performance Test Third Edition
Conners, C. K., Sitarenios, G., & Ayearst, L. E. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-57111-9_1535 · Cited by 49
Self-citationFassbender, C., Scangos, K. W., Lesh, T. A., & Carter, C. S. (2014) · Cognitive Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3758/s13415-014-0252-4 · Cited by 53
“…in disorders such as Attention Deficit/ Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD: Buzy, Medoff, & Schweitzer, 2009; Epstein et al., 2010; Fassbender et al., 2009; Hervey et al., 2006; Leth-Steensen, Elbaz, & Douglas, 2000) and may serve as a mechanism for examining the basis behind cognitive control deficits.”
Gu, S.-L. H., Gau, S. S., Tzang, S.-W., & Hsu, W. (2013) · Research in Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2013.07.025 · Cited by 51
Relation Between Outcomes on a Continuous Performance Test and ADHD Symptoms Over Time
Vaughn, A. J., Epstein, J. N., Rausch, J. R., Altaye, M., Langberg, J. M., Newcorn, J. H., Hinshaw, S. P., Hechtman, L. T., Arnold, L. E., Swanson, J. M., et al. (2011) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-011-9501-y · Cited by 50
“Results from the first test administration demonstrated that children with ADHD responded more slowly, more variably, and with more errors when compared to a matched control group (Hervey et al., 2006).”
ResultSelf-citationSluggish Cognitive Tempo and Neuropsychological Functioning
Creque, C. A., & Willcutt, E. G. (2021) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-021-00810-3 · Cited by 46
“…that RT variability may be closely related to the measures of sustained attention described in the previous section, with increased RT variability resulting from extremely long responses that occur on a subset of trials due to difficulties regulating attention over time (e.g., Hervey et al., 2006).”
BackgroundCapturing the dynamics of response variability in the brain in ADHD
van Belle, J., van Raalten, T. R., Bos, D. J., Zandbelt, B. B., Oranje, B., & Durston, S. (2014) · NeuroImage Clinical · doi:10.1016/j.nicl.2014.11.014 · Cited by 44
“There is evidence that response variability in ADHDmay be related to an increase in attentional lapses, as captured by tau (Buzy et al., 2009; Hervey et al., 2006; Leth-Steensen et al., 2000; Vaurio et al., 2009).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialFasmer, O. B., Mjeldheim, K., Førland, W., Hansen, A. L., Syrstad, V. E. G., Oedegaard, K. J., & Berle, J. Ø. (2016) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-016-0993-4 · Cited by 46
Examining predictors of reaction times in children with ADHD and normal controls
EPSTEIN, J. N., HWANG, M. E., ANTONINI, T., LANGBERG, J. M., ALTAYE, M., & ARNOLD, L. E. (2010) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617709991111 · Cited by 45
“For most of these variables, children with ADHD had longer RTs on these trials than did normal controls, which is consistent with a pattern of increased variability (Hervey et al., 2006 ) and long RTs (Klein et al., 2006 ) among children with ADHD.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialSelf-citationCai, W., Warren, S. L., Duberg, K., Pennington, B. F., Hinshaw, S. P., & Menon, V. (2021) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41380-021-01022-3 · Cited by 46
Self-citationDiane Swick, A., & Ashley, V. (2017) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-017-15226-7 · Cited by 47
Nejati, V., Rasanan, A. H. H., Rad, J. A., Alavi, M. M., Haghi, S., & Nitsche, M. A. (2021) · Neurophysiologie Clinique · doi:10.1016/j.neucli.2021.11.005 · Cited by 45
Components of Motor Deficiencies in ADHD and Possible Interventions
Dahan, A., Ryder, C. H., & Reiner, M. (2016) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2016.05.040 · Cited by 49
Zhou, B., & Krott, A. (2016) · Bilingualism Language and Cognition · doi:10.1017/s1366728916000869 · Cited by 46
Emotion processing in female youth: Testing the stability of the late positive potential
Bondy, E., Stewart, J. G., Hajcak, G., Weinberg, A., Tarlow, N., Mittal, V. A., & Auerbach, R. P. (2017) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/psyp.12977 · Cited by 43
“Finally, task-irrelevant images did not significantly impact tau, which may not be surprising as tau indexes lapses in attention (e.g., Hervey et al., 2006).”
Response variability in rapid automatized naming predicts reading comprehension
Li, J. J., Cutting, L. E., Ryan, M., Zilioli, M. K. C., DENCKLA, M. B., & Mahone, E. M. (2009) · Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/13803390802646973 · Cited by 46
“The sensitivity and specificity (Johnson et al., 2007b) of increased intraindividual response time variability in ADHD has led some to propose it as a possible endophenotype (Castellanos & Tannock, 2002), linked with top-down attention control processes (Cao et al., 2008; Hervey et al., 2006).”
BackgroundIncreased Response-Time Variability Across Different Cognitive Tasks in Children With ADHD
Adamo, N., Martino, A. D., Esu, L., Petkova, E., Johnson, K. A., Kelly, S. P., Castellanos, F. X., & Zuddas, A. (2012) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/1087054712439419 · Cited by 45
“Increased response-time intrasubject variability (RT-ISV) has been consistently documented in individuals with ADHD (Bellgrove, Hawi, Kirley, Gill, & Robertson, 2005; Halperin, Trampush, Miller, Marks, & Newcorn, 2008; Hervey et al., 2006; Klein, Wendling, Huettner, Ruder, & Peper, 2006; Kuntsi, Oosterlaan, & Stevenso…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialMarcela Henríquez, H., Billeke, P. B., HenrÃquez, H., Zamorano, F. J., Rothhammer, F., & Aboitiz, F. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2014.00197 · Cited by 44
Vollebregt, M. A., Zumer, J. M., ter Huurne, N., Buitelaar, J. K., & Jensen, O. B. (2016) · Clinical Neurophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.clinph.2016.01.021 · Cited by 42
“Children with ADHD are thought to have slower responses due to a larger tau in particular (Hervey et al., 2006).”
BackgroundMulti-Source Interference Task paradigm to enhance automatic and controlled processes in ADHD
Caprì, T., Santoddì, E., & Fabio, R. A. (2019) · Research in Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2019.103542 · Cited by 41
Time-on-Task in Children with ADHD: An ex-Gaussian Analysis
Tarantino, V., Cutini, S., Mogentale, C., & Bisiacchi, P. S. (2013) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617713000623 · Cited by 49
“The normally distributed sigma parameter was overall higher in the ADHD group, which is consistent with previous reports (Hervey et al., 2006; Vaurio et al., 2009).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialBorella, E., Ribaupierre, A. D., Cornoldi, C., & Chicherio, C. (2013) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2012.696603 · Cited by 41
“Despite promising results, only a few other studies applied ex-Gaussian function analyses to RT data of children with ADHD (Buzy, Medoff, & Schweitzer, 2009; Geurts et al., 2008; Hervey et al., 2006; Vaurio et al., 2009); we might therefore further our understanding of inhibitory deficits in children with ADHD by isol…”
ResultFeige, B., Biscaldi, M., Saville, C. W. N., Kluckert, C., Bender, S., Ebner-Priemer, U., Hennighausen, K., Rauh, R., Fleischhaker, C., & Klein, C. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0069674 · Cited by 41
“Study Age MRT SDRT Mu SigmaTau CSDCom Om Leth-Stensen et al. 2000 10-11 22.9 50.1 1.4 0.2 53.8 ― ― ― Hervey et al. 2006 10 9.9 25.5 5.3 8.2 28.7 ― 0.8 7.4 Vaurio et al. 2009 7-13 1.3 9.9a 0.1 4.5 6.9 ― 17.0 Kollins et al. 2009 31-32 ― ― 7.8 n.s. 5.6 ― ― ― Buzy et al. 2009 7-14 ― ― 0.10 6.2 10.2 ―…”
BackgroundInfluentialEnhancing neural markers of attention in children with ADHD using a digital therapeutic
Gallen, C. L., Anguera, J. A., Gerdes, M. R., Simon, A. J., Cañadas, E., & Marco, E. J. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0261981 · Cited by 42
“Work in children and adolescents with attention difficulties has shown that they have poorer performance on this related, yet distinct, RT metric [33, 34].”
BackgroundCubillo, A., Hermes, H., Berger, E., Winkel, K., Schunk, D., Fehr, E., & Hare, T. A. (2022) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/desc.13252 · Cited by 41
“In addition, the shapeoftheresponsetimedistributioncanbeparameterizedbyfitting ex-gaussian models (Geurts et al., 2008; Hervey et al., 2006; van Belle et al., 2015), and potential sources of variability can be distinguished by fitting Diffusion Decision Models (DDM) (Forstmann et al., 2016;…”
BackgroundMethodCognitive Translation Using the Rodent Touchscreen Testing Approach
Hvoslef‐Eide, M., Nilsson, S. R. O., Saksida, L. M., & Bussey, T. J. (2015) · Current topics in behavioral neurosciences · doi:10.1007/7854_2015_5007 · Cited by 41
Adolescent maturation of the relationship between cortical gyrification and cognitive ability
Chung, Y. S., Hyatt, C. J., & Stevens, M. C. G. (2017) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2017.06.082 · Cited by 41
“These variables of the CPT-II have been commonly used in many previous studies (Busse and Whiteside, 2012; Fasmer et al., 2016; Hervey et al., 2006; Hurks et al., 2005; Lange et al., 2013; Lucke et al., 2015).”
Littleton, A. C., Schmidt, J. D., Register‐Mihalik, J. K., Gioia, G. A., Waicus, K. M., Mihalik, J. P., & Guskiewicz, K. M. (2015) · Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology · doi:10.1093/arclin/acv043 · Cited by 40
“Response time variability has been demonstrated in individuals with ADHD (Hervey et al., 2006; Johnson et al., 2007; Vaurio, Simmonds, & Mostofsky, 2009) and is likely due to disengagement or distraction (Tamm et al., 2012).”
Reaction Time Variability in Children With ADHD Symptoms and/or Dyslexia
Gooch, D., Snowling, M. J., & Hulme, C. (2012) · Developmental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/87565641.2011.650809 · Cited by 41
“There are a number of differences between the current study and the previous studies that may account for the failure to replicate the finding that ADHD RTs distributions are often characterized by increased tau (e.g. Epstein et al., 2011; Hervey et al., 2006; Leth-Steensen et al., 2000; Vaurio et al., 2009).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialMcGowan, N. M., Uzoni, A., Faltraco, F., Thome, J., & Coogan, A. N. (2020) · Journal of Sleep Research · doi:10.1111/jsr.12974 · Cited by 41
“Faster mu predicts impulsive responses and commission errors in the context of ADHD; slower tau predicts omission errors and lapses in attention (Hervey et al., 2006; Tarantino, Cutini, Mogentale, & Bisiacchi, 2013).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialJacobson, L. A., Ryan, M., DENCKLA, M. B., Mostofsky, S. H., & Mahone, E. M. (2013) · Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology · doi:10.1093/arclin/act048 · Cited by 45
“Not surprisingly, then, there is a growing body of work examining neuropsychological processes that may underlie the shared functional impairments in these two disorders.”
BackgroundInfluentialGriffiths, S. T., Gundersen, H. S., Neto, E., Elgen, I. B., Markestad, T., Aukland, S. M., & Hugdahl, K. (2013) · Pediatric Research · doi:10.1038/pr.2013.79 · Cited by 38
Puppets, robots, critics, and actors within a taxonomy of attention for developmental disorders
Dennis, M., Sinopoli, K. J., Fletcher, J. M., & Schachar, R. J. (2008) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617708080983 · Cited by 36
Gómez-Guerrero, L., Martín, C. D., Mairena, M. A., Di Martino, A., Wang, J., Mendelsohn, A. L., Dreyer, B. P., Isquith, P. K., Gioia, G., Petkova, E., et al. (2011) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/1087054709356379 · Cited by 35
“Future work with versions of these tasks that differ in duration and are presented in counterbalanced order will be needed to define the task-parameter “boundaries” required to best observe the expected relationship between ISV and ADHD symptoms.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialRelationship between reaction time variability and motor skill development in ADHD
Klotz, J. M., Johnson, M. D., Wu, S. W., Isaacs, K. M., & Gilbert, D. L. (2012) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2011.625356 · Cited by 46
“Multiple studies have shown that children who meet diagnostic criteria for attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) have slower average reaction times and greater intraindividual variation over multiple trials (Epstein et al., 2010; Hervey et al., 2006; Smith & Parent, 1984; Wahlstedt, 2009).”
BackgroundInfluentialMetin, B., Wiersema, J. R., Verguts, T., Gasthuys, R., van der Meere, J. J., Roeyers, H., & Sonuga-Barke, E. J. S. (2014) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2014.986082 · Cited by 42
“Previous studies employing ex-Gaussian decompositions demonstrated differences between individuals with ADHD and typically developing controls in both tau (Buzy, Medoff, & Schweitzer, 2009; Epstein et al., 2011; Hervey et al., 2006; Hwang Gu, Gau, Tzang, & Hsu, 2013; Leth-Steensen et al., 2000; Lin et al., 2014; Vauri…”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialReaction Time Variability and Related Brain Activity in Methamphetamine Psychosis
Fassbender, C., Lesh, T. A., Ursu, S., & Salo, R. E. (2014) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2014.07.028 · Cited by 35
“High levels of RT variability have been associated with an inability to effectively engage cognitive control in situations of increased cognitive demands (44), sustained attention impairments (45,46), and problems in regulating energetic states (47-50).”
BackgroundThe Acute Impact of Ethanol on Cognitive Performance in Rhesus Macaques
Jedema, H. P., Carter, M. D., Dugan, B. P., Gurnsey, K., Olsen, A. S., & Bradberry, C. W. (2010) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhq244 · Cited by 35
Domain-Specific and Unspecific Reaction Times in Experienced Team Handball Goalkeepers and Novices
Helm, F., Reiser, M., & Munzert, J. (2016) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00882 · Cited by 36
Metadata
- Authors
- Hervey, A. S., Epstein, J. N., Curry, J. F., Tonev, S., Eugene Arnold, L., Keith Conners, C., Hinshaw, S. P., Swanson, J. M., & Hechtman, L.
- Affiliations
- Brigham and Women's Hospital (US)
- Duke Medical Center (US)
- Duke University (US)
- University of California, Berkeley (US)
- University of California, Irvine (US)
- Montreal Children's Hospital (CA)
- Corresponding author
- Epstein, Jeffery N.
- Venue
- Child Neuropsychology
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2006-05
- Volume
- 12
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 125-140
- ISSN
- 0929-7049 (ISSN-L)
- 1744-4136
- OpenAlex
- W2148800933
- Cited by
- 262
- References
- 51
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 9 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 11 · 2022: 11 · 2021: 16 · 2020: 12 · 2019: 24 · 2018: 15 · 2017: 15 · 2016: 21 · 2015: 19 · 2014: 16 · 2013: 20 · 2012: 17
- FWCI
- 6.37
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Child Neuropsychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- The Knowledge Bank (The Ohio State University) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (U01 MH50447, U01MH50461, U01MH50440, U01MH050467, U01MH50454, U01MH050447, U01MH050440, K24MH064478, U01MH050453, U01MH50467, K24 MH64478, U01MH050461, U01MH50453, U01MH050454)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Keywords
- attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, reaction time variability, reaction time distribution, ex-Gaussian distribution, Conners' Continuous Performance Test, attentional lapses, children and adolescents, neuropsychological performance
- MeSH terms
- Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity, Child, Cognition Disorders, Female, Humans, Male, Neuropsychological Tests, Reaction Time, Severity of Illness Index
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