Political party and party system institutionalization in Southeast Asia: lessons for democratic consolidation in Indonesia, the Philippines and Thailand

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The Megawati government (2001-04) had a dubious track record because military reforms were delayed and the heavy-handed policy on regions such as Aceh and Papua even intensified.

“The Megawati government (2001-04) had a dubious track record because military reforms were delayed and the heavy-handed policy on regions such as Aceh and Papua even intensified.”

May combine two claims.

Regulations on how to conduct party congresses in Indonesia are usually unclear and are prone to manipulation.

“Usually, regulations on how to conduct party congresses are unclear and are prone to manipulation (Notosusanto 2005).”

• cites Notosusanto 2005Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

In Thailand, the party system has collapsed just recently.

“In Thailand, the party system has collapsed just recently.”

May combine two claims.

In the Philippines, the post-1986 system is not reminiscent of that of the pre-Marcos period and has shifted continuously.

“In the Philippines, the post-1986 system is not reminiscent of that of the pre-Marcos period and has shifted continuously.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Membership fees are mostly insignificant in Indonesian parties, as is public funding.

“Membership fees are mostly insignificant, as is public funding.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

There is an evident continuity among Indonesian party alternatives reaching back to the 1950s.

“There is an evident continuity among party alternatives reaching back to the 1950s.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

The financing of parties in Indonesia is dubious: many rely for campaigning on unknown financiers, and regulations to control these external cash flows are seldom enforced.

“The financing of parties in general is dubious: many of them rely for campaigning on unknown financiers, and regulations to control these external cash flows are seldom enforced.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The PDI-P has lost most of its reform vigour.

“The PDI-P, banned as the only real opposition party (then as the PDI) in the last years of the New Order, has lost most of its reform vigour.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

'Money politics' with bought candidacies, MPs acting as brokers for private companies, businessmen taking over party chairmanships, and billionaire financiers determining policies behind the scenes are far more pronounced today in Indonesia.

“'Money politics' with bought candidacies, MPs acting as brokers for private companies, businessmen taking over party chairmanships, and billionaire financiers determining policies behind the scenes are far more pronounced today.”

May combine two claims.

Most Indonesian parties are socially rooted and better linked to different kinds of civil society and religious organizations.

“As to the institutionalization of individual parties, most Indonesian parties are socially rooted and better linked to different kinds of civil society and religious organizations.”

May combine two claims.

Intraparty authoritarianism and personalism is obvious in Indonesian parties.

“Intraparty authoritarianism and personalism is obvious.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In recent years some businessmen have become party chiefs in Indonesia, for example Yusuf Kalla (Golkar) and Sutrisno Bachir (PAN).

“In recent years some businessmen have even become party chiefs, for example Yusuf Kalla (Golkar) and Sutrisno Bachir (PAN).”

May combine two claims.

A fair degree of party and party system institutionalization has been achieved in Indonesia, where the party system is characterized by clearly visible cleavages.

“Nonetheless, a fair degree of party and party system institutionalization has been achieved in Indonesia, where the party system is characterized by clearly visible cleavages.”

May combine two claims.

Almost all Indonesian parties have their power center in Jakarta and chastise recalcitrant members, including by recalling parliamentarians.

“Almost all parties have their power center in Jakarta and chastise recalcitrant members.One means of doing so is recalling parliamentarians, that is, terminating their mandate and replacing them.”

May combine two claims.

Indonesian parties cooperate in grand coalitions, avoid the formation of an organized opposition and collude in tolerating corruption.

“Parties cooperate in grand coalitions, avoid the formation of an organized opposition and collude in tolerating corruption.”

May combine two claims.

Partai Demokrat is almost completely dependent on Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono and was set up as a vehicle for the first direct presidential elections.

“The Partai Demokrat (Democrat Party), for instance, which is almost completely dependent on Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono, was set up as a vehicle for the first direct presidential elections.”

May combine two claims.

In Indonesia, the spread of mass education and the mass media together with the globalization of Islam have weakened the old religious establishment and elevated new Muslim leaders, many of whom are without a deep religious knowledge.

“In Indonesia, the spread of mass education and the mass media together with the globalization of Islam have weakened the old religious establishment and elevated new Muslim leaders, many of whom are without a deep religious knowledge.”

May combine two claims.

In Thailand, strong local elites arose in the 1980s, along with the establishment of a semidemocracy with competitive elections.

“In Thailand, strong local elites arose in the 1980s, along with the establishment of a semidemocracy with competitive elections.”

May combine two claims.

Thai local elites dominated multi-member constituencies and were thus able to take control of factions, parties, and ministries in Bangkok in fluid coalition governments.

“The local elites dominated multi-member constituencies and were thus able to take control of factions, parties, and ministries in Bangkok in fluid coalition governments (Sidel 1999: 150f.).”

• cites Sidel 1999: 150f. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Family clans still dominate the Philippine political landscape, but now they have begun to compete with celebrities and professionals.

“The family clans still dominate the political landscape, but now they have begun to compete with celebrities and professionals.”

May combine two claims.

Ethnic Chinese and indigenous businessmen arose as a powerful class in the New Order and are now increasingly able to influence political parties in Indonesia.

“They arose as a powerful class in the New Order and are now increasingly able to influence political parties.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

In Thailand, the TRT was the direct offshoot of Thaksin's media empire.

“In Thailand, the TRT was the direct offshoot of Thaksin's media empire.”

May combine two claims.

In contrast to the Philippines, Thai local elites emerged relatively late and in a parliamentary system with a centralized bureaucracy where local executive powers are wielded by civilian bureaucrats.

“In contrast to the Philippines, these elites emerged relatively late and in a parliamentary system with a centralized bureaucracy where local executive powers are wielded by civilian bureaucrats.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

In Thailand, the national elite were able to retain their power unimpeded by colonial rulers so that the ensuing 'bureaucratic polity' would, for a long time, stave off extra-bureaucratic forces such as political parties.

“In Thailand, the national elite were able to retain their power unimpeded by colonial rulers so that the ensuing 'bureaucratic polity' would, for a long time, stave off extra-bureaucratic forces such as political parties.”

May combine two claims.

These highly politicized, mostly anti-colonial, nationalist organizations were socially entrenched and capable of mobilizing large parts of the population.

“These highly politicized, mostly anti-colonial, nationalist organizations were socially entrenched and capable of mobilizing large parts of the population.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

This domination by capital is still not fully developed in Indonesia, whereas it has been typical in the Philippines from the beginning and in Thailand at least since the 1980s.

“This domination is still not fully developed, whereas it has been typical in the Philippines from the beginning and in Thailand at least since the 1980s.”

May combine two claims.

Indonesian parliamentarians have a much weaker power base than in the Philippines and Thailand, where congressmen and MPs are elected directly with a majority system.

“Indonesian parliamentarians have a much weaker power base than in the Philippines and Thailand, where congressmen and MPs are elected directly with a majority system.”

May combine two claims.

So far, patterns of party competition in Indonesia have manifested regularly and the voter-party linkage has been quite strong.

“So far, patterns of party competition have manifested regularly and the voter-party linkage has been quite strong.”

May combine two claims.

Indonesia is an exception in that the patterns of competition are relatively regular and a few of the large parties are to a certain extent still rooted in society.

“Indonesia is an exception in that the patterns of competition are relatively regular and a few of the large parties are to a certain extent still rooted in society.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

In Thailand, the most recent Freedom House ratings for political rights declined from 3 to 7 and those for civil liberties from 3 to 4.

“In Thailand, the most recent Freedom House ratings for political rights declined from 3 to 7 and those for civil liberties from 3 to 4.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Thaksin was toppled after he had easily overwhelmed a range of clientelist parties and had begun to destroy core institutions of the electoral democracy.

“Thaksin was toppled after he had easily overwhelmed a range of clientelist parties and had begun to destroy core institutions of the electoral democracy.”

May combine two claims.

One of the best-rooted parties in Indonesia today has a dubious past and is prone to defend the privileges of New Order elites (Golkar); another demonstrates a shallow commitment to the multi-religious compromise enshrined in the constitution (PKS).

“One of the best-rooted parties in Indonesia today has a dubious past and is prone to de-fend the privileges of New Order elites (Golkar); another demonstrates a shallow commitment to the multi-religious compromise enshrined in the constitution (PKS).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

In the Philippines, politics is determined by fights among clans and is, thus, extremely unpredictable.

“In the Philippines, politics is determined by fights among clans and is, thus, extremely unpredictable.”

May combine two claims.

Many of the big parties in Indonesia are rooted, have substantial linkages to civil and religious organizations and are reified in the public mind.

“Many of the big parties in Indonesia are rooted, have substantial linkages to civil and religious organizations and are reified in the public mind.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The three countries, Indonesia, the Philippines and Thailand, are comparable cases for assessing the relationship between party and party system institutionalization and democratic consolidation.

May combine two claims.

The largest political parties in the Philippines today are still characterized by a lack of meaningful platforms, by a high frequency of party switching and factionalism, as well as by numerous dissolutions and re-emergences.

“The largest political parties in the Philippines today are still characterized by a lack of meaningful platforms, by a high frequency of party switching and factionalism, as well as by numerous dissolutions and re-emergences”

• cites Arlegue and Coronel 2003Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites Rocamora 2000Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites Teehankee 2006Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The three countries, Indonesia, the Philippines and Thailand, are comparable cases for assessing the relationship between party and party system institutionalization and democratic consolidation.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

It is generally assumed that parties fulfil their usual functions better when they and the party system as a whole are well-institutionalized and that a higher degree of institutionalization is positively correlated with the consolidation of democracy.

“It is generally assumed that parties fulfil their usual functions better when they and the party system as a whole are well-institutionalized and that a higher degree of institutionalization is positively correlated with the consolidation of democracy”

• cites Mainwaring and Torcal 2006 sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites Randall and Sva˚ sand 2002Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

Well-functioning political parties are essential for recruiting political elites, organizing opposition, resolving conflict by establishing channels of representation, providing accountability, and aggregating interests.

“well-functioning political parties are essential for recruiting political elites, organizing opposition, resolving conflict by establishing channels of representation, providing accountability, and aggregating interests.”

• cites Lindberg 2007Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites Lai and Melkonian-Hoover 2005Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

The vacuum of deinstitutionalized party systems is filled by pluto populism, not Peronist populism; organized labour is eschewed.

“The vacuum of deinstitutionalized party systems is filled by 'pluto' populism (Phongpaichit and Baker 2002;Thompson 2007), not Peronist populism; that is, organized labour is eschewed.”

• cites Phongpaichit and Baker 2002Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites Thompson 2007Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The three countries, Indonesia, the Philippines and Thailand, are comparable cases for assessing the relationship between party and party system institutionalization and democratic consolidation.

May combine two claims.

Weakly institutionalized party systems generate more uncertainty in electoral outcomes and are inimical to electoral accountability.

“Weakly institutionalized party systems generate more uncertainty in electoral outcomes and are inimical to electoral accountability.”

• cites Mainwaring and Torcal 2006 sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

In the Philippines, politicians repeatedly switch from one party to another, making it impossible to measure total electoral volatility.

“In the Philippines, politicians repeatedly switch from one party to another, making it impossible to measure total electoral volatility”

• cites Croissant 2006Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In Indonesia, a shift from one Islamic party to another may indicate a very moderate volatility in terms of identification with certain ideologies or policies.

“In Indonesia, for instance, a shift from one Islamic party to another may indicate a very moderate volatility in terms of identification with certain ideologies or policies.”

May combine two claims.

A relatively stable party system fosters more effective programmatic representation, party labels provide better programmatic cues, and electoral volatility usually decreases and provides considerable structure to democratic politics.

“A relatively stable party system fosters more effective programmatic representation, party labels provide better programmatic cues, and electoral volatility usually decreases and 'provides considerable structure to democratic politics'”

• cites Mainwaring and Zoco 2007Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Because of a general devaluation of ideologies, political platforms in Indonesia are generally poor.

“Because of a general devaluation of ideologies, political platforms are generally poor.”

May combine two claims.

These linkages provide a comparatively strong infusion of values and foster, in spite of recent counter-tendencies, a fair routinization.

“These linkages provide a comparatively strong infusion of values and foster, in spite of recent counter-tendencies, a fair routinization.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

More institutionalized party systems are more stable; patterns of party competition manifest more regularly.

“More institutionalized systems, according to them, are more stable; that is, patterns of party competition manifest more regularly.”

• cites Mainwaring and Torcal 2006 sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The political systems of Thailand, the Philippines and Indonesia are defined as electoral democracies or polyarchies.

“In this article, the political systems of Thailand, the Philip-pines and Indonesia are defined as electoral democracies or polyarchies, which is essentially the same.”

• cites Dahl 1989Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Other reasons for the hampering of party institutionalization in the three countries are eroding traditional relationships and the rise of the mass media.

“Other reasons for the hampering of party institutionalization in the three countries are eroding traditional relationships and the rise of the mass media.”

May combine two claims.

The multipartyism in Indonesia is not simply the result of but also at least as much the cause of the proportional system.

“The multipartyism in Indonesia, for example, is not simply the result of but also at least as much the cause of the proportional system.”

May combine two claims.

Institutionalization is hampered in Thailand and the Philippines by the existence of highly influential local and regional elites, whereas in Indonesia strong countervailing civil society forces alleviate local strongmen rule.

“Institutionalization is hampered in Thailand and the Philippines by the existence of highly influential local and regional elites, whereas in Indonesia strong countervailing civil society forces alleviate local strongmen rule (Sidel 2004).”

• cites Sidel 2004Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Rüland et al. state that the party system reflected in the legislature 'is primarily an expression of the extent to which societal cleavages are transformed into political parties but also of the electoral system,' whereas in most cases there is no clear causal link between the system of government and party cohesion.

“Rüland et al. (2005: 271) state that the party system reflected in the legislature 'is primarily an expression of the extent to which societal cleavages are transformed into political parties but also of the electoral system,' whereas in most cases there is no clear causal link between the system of government and party cohesion.”

• cites Rüland et al. 2005: 271 sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Although Thaksin was able to hold sway over these local elites, party system institutionalization was blocked by a de facto one-party rule.

“Although Thaksin was able to hold sway over these local elites, party system institutionalization was blocked by a de facto one-party rule.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

For Sidel, the emergence of bosses is essentially dependent on a specific sequencing, that is, the imposition of formal electoral democratic institutions upon an underdeveloped state apparatus at an early phase of capitalist development.

“For Sidel, the emergence of bosses is essentially dependent on a specific sequencing, that is, the imposition of formal electoral democratic institutions upon an underdeveloped state apparatus at an early phase of capitalist development (Sidel 1999: 13).”

• cites Sidel 1999: 13 sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Reasons for weak local elites in Indonesia include the early mobilization and translation of cleavages into the party system, the heritage of New Order centralism, and the lack of a strong locally based bourgeoisie.

“Reasons for this, besides the above-mentioned early mobilization and translation of cleavages into the party system, are the heritage of New Order centralism and, particularly, the lack of a strong locally based bourgeoisie.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

According to neo-institutionalists, institutions are endogenous; that is, 'their form and their functioning depend on the conditions under which they emerge and endure'.

“According to neo-institutionalists, institutions are endogenous; that is, 'their form and their functioning depend on the conditions under which they emerge and endure' (Przeworski 2004: 527).”

• cites Przeworski 2004: 527Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

According to Manacsa, in the Philippines after 1986 political parties and the party system have changed inter alia because of the weakening of traditional patron-client bonds as well as the rise of powerful TV newscasters and entertainment stars.

“According to Manacsa (1999: 202ff.), in the Philippines after 1986 political parties and the party system have changed inter alia because of the weakening of traditional patron-client bonds as well as the rise of powerful TV newscasters and entertainment stars.”

• cites Manacsa 1999: 202ff.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Mainwaring has stated that greater institutionalization is not always better because it may lead to the ossification of party structures.

“Mainwaring (1997) has stated that greater institutionalization is not always better because it may lead to the ossification of party structures.”

• cites Mainwaring 1997Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Schedler warns against the confusion of the consolidation of 'partial regimes' with that of democracy as a whole, for 'a democracy may be secure against reversals even if its party system is still inchoate and fluid; and conversely, a democracy may break down even if its party system is highly institutionalized.'

“In this vein, Schedler (2001: 161) warns against the confusion of the consolidation of 'partial regimes' with that of democracy as a whole, for 'a democracy may be secure against reversals even if its party system is still inchoate and fluid; and conversely, a democracy may break down even if its party system is highly institutionalized.'”

• cites Schedler 2001: 161Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

This may change in the long run, because some of the patterns buttressing political parties in Indonesia are increasingly being undermined.

“But, again, this may change in the long run, because some of the patterns buttressing political parties in Indonesia are increasingly being undermined.”

May combine two claims.

This is contingent upon the power of local elites, the impact of huge entrepreneurs on party activities, and formal institutional factors, although the latter should not be overestimated.

“This, again, is contingent upon the power of local elites, the impact of huge entrepreneurs on party activities, and formal institutional factors, although the latter should not be overestimated.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Johnson Tan rightly notes that the rootedness of Indonesian parties at times even heightens social conflicts.

“In like manner, Johnson Tan (2006) rightly notes that the rootedness of Indonesian parties at times even heightens social conflicts.”

• cites Johnson Tan 2006Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

If one looks at the whole political system, a low number of veto actors and, particularly, a military controlled by civil authorities are beneficial.

“If one looks at the whole political system, a low number of veto actors and, particularly, a military controlled by civil authorities are beneficial.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Brownlee has observed that parties often play a vital role in facilitating the maintenance of electoral authoritarian regimes.

“And Brownlee (2007: 218f.) has observed that parties often play a vital role in facilitating the maintenance of electoral authoritarian regimes.”

• cites Brownlee 2007: 218f. sourceNot checked yet

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May combine two claims.

The probability that a better-institutionalized party system is positively correlated with a less-fragile democratic regime is high, and the three test cases support the hypothesis.

“The probability that a better-institutionalized party system is positively correlated with a less-fragile democratic regime is high, and the three test cases support the hypothesis.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The three countries (Indonesia, the Philippines, Thailand) are comparable cases for testing the relationship between party system institutionalization and democratic consolidation.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The direct election of regional heads in Indonesia since 2005 may, in the long run, change at least the standing of local elites.

“The direct election of regional heads in Indonesia since 2005 may, in the long run, change at least the standing of local elites.”

May combine two claims.

If other 'partial regimes' are included in the analysis, it is probable that a consolidated rechtsstaat, an advantageous social structure, the absence of political violence and fierce class struggle, and an efficient and uncorrupted state administration all buttress directly or indirectly the democraticness of political parties and the party system.

“And if other 'partial regimes' are included in the analysis, it is probable that a consolidated rechtsstaat, an advantageous social structure, the absence of political violence and fierce class struggle, and an efficient and uncorrupted state administration all buttress directly or indirectly the democraticness of political parties and the party system.”