Museums and the ‘new museology’: theory, practice and organisational change

The latter staff groups tend not to be seen as being able to provide any particular knowledge or experience to considerations of how museums could or should function, with these being the preserve of traditional, functionally-based management groupings within the sector.

“The latter staff groups tend not to be seen as being able to provide any particular knowledge or experience to considerations of how museums could or should function, with these being the preserve of traditional, functionally-based management groupings within the sector.”

There did not appear to be a distinction between the professional functions of museum workers and a collegial attitude that has developed from changes to patterns of internal management and organisation - at least in some of the museum services.

“There did not appear to be a distinction between the professional functions of museum workers and a collegial attitude that has developed from changes to patterns of internal management and organisation -at least in some of the museum services.”

The ambiguity surrounding policy, roles and practice highlighted that museum workers were key agents in interpreting, using and understanding wide-ranging policy expectations.

“The ambiguity surrounding policy, roles and practice also highlighted that museum workers were key agents in interpreting, using and understanding wide-ranging policy expectations.”

There is still a major polarisation between professional and 'other' - clerical, manual and administrative - staff within the sector.

“There is still a major polarisation between professional and 'other' -clerical, manual and administrative -staff within the sector.”

Findings from 23 publicly funded museum services across England, Scotland and Wales show organisational and managerial limitations to the practical application of the 'new museology'.

“Findings from 23 publicallyfunded museum services across England, Scotland and Wales are presented to explore the roles of professional and hierarchical differentiation, and how there were organisational and managerial limitations to the practical application of the 'new museology'.”

There is often still a perceived, and real, polarisation of factions within museum services.

“The role of professional differentiation is first explored showing that there is often still a perceived, and real, polarisation of factions within museum services.”

The language and discourses related to the 'new museology' have been used as opportunities for workers to pursue their own discretion in implementing activities at the ground level.

“The language and discourses that relate to the 'new museology' have been used as opportunities for workers to pursue their own discretion in implementing activities at the ground level.”

Managers who were critically discussed were often seen as vague and nameless entities higher up the managerial hierarchy, or outside the museum service altogether.

“The managers that were critically discussed were often seen as vague and nameless entities higher up the managerial hierarchy, or even outside of the museum service altogether.”

In many of the services studied there was a sense that the role of curators had been 'downgraded' within the museum service hierarchy.

“In many of the services studied there was a sense that the role of curators had been”

Workers were aware of the dichotomy between 'intrinsic' activities within the museum and other expectations as demonstrated, for example, by the 'old school' and 'new school' labels placed on workers.

“It is important to note, however, that workers were aware of the dichotomy between 'intrinsic' activities within the museum and other expectations as demonstrated, for example, by the 'old school' and 'new school' labels placed on workers.”

Managerial conflict and control mechanisms often encouraged the development of defensive strategies around traditional preservation and collections-based roles, in reaction to the perception that management were targeting the decision-making power and professionalism of museum staff (even if this was not the case in every museum service).

“Managerial conflict and control mechanisms often encouraged the development of defensive strategies around traditional preservation and collections-based roles, in reaction to the perception that management were targeting the decision-making power and professionalism of museum staff (even if this was not the case in every museum service).”

Staff are more usually subtle about manipulating policy so that senior managerial levels can be kept satisfied.

“While this may imply that implementing staff can have free rein when managing policy, adapting or even ignoring it when it suits them, it is more usually the case that staff are much more subtle about manipulating policy so that senior managerial levels can be kept satisfied.”

The traditional museological view of museums as being collections-focused is certainly still present with many members of museum staff - not only curators and conservators but also education and community outreach staff as well, who see their own actions as being determined as much by the collections as by the dictates of senior management.

“The traditional museological view of museums as being collections-focused is certainly still present with many members of museum staffnot only curators and conservators but also education and community outreach staff as well, who see their own actions as being determined as much by the collections as by the dictates of senior management.”

Many curators gave a clear indication of the low importance given to collections and collections policy by senior management.

“Many curators gave a clear indication of the low importance given to collections and collections policy by senior management.”

Many curators felt that they were fighting a rear-guard action in opposition to higher-ranking managers.

“The key point is that many curators felt that they were fighting a rear-guard action in opposition to higher-ranking managers.”

Many museum workers report a perceived fragmentation into polarised groups within museum services.

“Practical implementation of the 'new museology' can thus be hindered by current managerial structures and mechanisms, with many museum workers reporting a perceived fragmentation into polarised groups within museum services.”

There was a lack of engagement with user groups in the museums studied.

“A good example of this is the lack of engagement with user groups.”

Staff at ground level were generally positive when talking about their own immediate managers.

“When talking about their own immediate managers, staff at the ground-level were generally positive.”

Many of the curators were managers themselves.

“It must also be remembered that many of the curators were managers themselves.”

The social inclusion agenda was an opportunity for museums to 'latch-on' to funding that was not available to them before.

“The social inclusion agenda, for example, was an opportunity for museums to 'latch-on' to funding that was not available to them before.”

Staff often advocated (although not always delivered) a more user-led process within their services.

“Staff often advocated (although not always delivered) a more user-led process within their services.”

Some museum workers used more active strategies to manage the managers, either through the control of information or through more individual actions such as 'gentle flirting with older men'.

“Others, however, used more active strategies to manage the managers, either through the control of information or through more individual actions such as”

The managers the authors talked to were usually clear advocates of the museum services studied.

“The managers we talked to were usually clear advocates of the museum services studied.”

There were elements of Lipsky's account within the defensive strategies employed by museum workers.

“There were certainly elements of this within the defensive strategies employed by museum workers.”

The relationship between workers and management had a fundamental impact on implementation of policy expectations.

“In each scenario, the relationship between workers and management was a key area of discussion and had a fundamental impact on implementation of policy expectations.”

Many museum roles were interdisciplinary, relating to more than one branch of knowledge and/or function.

“Many roles were what could be termed interdisciplinary relating to more than one branch of knowledge and/or function.”

Museum workers recognised elements of polarisation within their services.

“The empirical evidence highlighted that museum workers recognised elements of polarisation within their services.”

Line managers, let alone senior ones, can often find problems in ensuring that organisational policies are lived up to.

“Indeed, line managers, let alone senior ones, can often find problems in ensuring that organisational policies are lived up to.”

One curator purposefully subverted a senior manager's politically influenced decision to do an exhibition on the working class by producing a popular exhibition exploring women's role in the miners' strikes of the 1970s and 1980s.

“The curator purposefully subverted what she deemed to be a politically influenced decision and produced a popular exhibition where she explored the role of women in the miners' strikes of the 1970s and 1980s.”

Even when there was a comments card system in place, museum workers reported no follow-up activities after comments were communicated up the managerial hierarchy.

“Even when there was a comments card system in place, museum workers reported no followup activities after comments were communicated up the managerial hierarchy.”

The thoughts and processes attributed to the 'new museology' were limited in practice, often being seen to be operating on a discourse level that did not quite relate to the actual practices of the museums studied.

“As well as a clear existence of diverse working groups within the museums studied, there was an indication that the thoughts and processes attributed to the 'new museology' were limited in practice, often being seen to be operating on a discourse level that did not quite relate to the actual practices of the museums studied.”

Curators consistently showed that they agreed with the social aims within their organisations, even if they viewed themselves as collections-focused.

“Curators consistently showed that they agreed with the social aims within their organisations, even if they viewed themselves as collections-focused.”

In the majority of services a variety of new labels had been given not only to curators, but also to other professional groups such as conservators and education officers.

“Indeed, in the majority of services a variety of new labels had been given not only to curators, but also to other professional groups such as conservators and education officers.”

Overt diversion of policy to meet implementing staff demands is usually accompanied by presentation or skewing of information to demonstrate that original policy is being met.

“Overt diversion of policy to meet the demands of implementing staff is usually accompanied by the presentation of information to management that is designed to demonstrate that the original policy is being met, or by the skewing of information to allow it to appear that policy is being met (Goddard et al. 2000;Hood 2006).”

• cites Goddard et al. 2000Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Hood 2006 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Policy demands vary between the type of museum service and the source of policy demands.

“These vary between the type of museum service (in the current case, local authority, trust, university and national) and the source of policy demands, whether these are derived from central or local governments, various quasi-autonomous non-governmental organisations (QUANGOs), the general legal requirements that are in force, or from within museums and museum services themselves.”

The establishment of a clear functional division between 'managers' and museum staff in some cases allowed for the continuation of more traditional, 'professional' views of museums and their functions.

“Equally, however, the establishment of a clear functional division between 'managers' and museum staff in other cases allowed for the continuation of more traditional, 'professional' views of museums and their functions.”

Workers at ground level tried to increase their discretion over museum activities.

“Whether the relationship was defensive or functional, workers at the ground level could be seen to try and increase their discretion over museum activities.”

In other examples, the traditional role of the curator was alive and well, with senior management prepared to allow curators to make all of the exhibition and display choices that they wanted -- free from what other curators would see as excessive amounts of top-down, managerial, control.

“In other examples, however, the traditional role of the curator was alive and well, with senior management prepared to allow curators to make all of the exhibition and display choices that they wanted --free from what other curators would see as excessive amounts of top-down, managerial, control.”

Perceptions around the role and function of museums can go backwards and forwards between these continuums.

“Perceptions around the role and function of museums can go backwards and forwards between these continuums.”

Curatorial roles have widened to include less collections-based work and more directly 'managerial' and 'administrative' activities.

“Curatorial roles, for example, have widened to include less collections-based work and more directly 'managerial' and 'administrative' activities.”

The empirical evidence has clearly shown that there are different and competing tensions within museum services.

“The empirical evidence has clearly shown that there are different and competing tensions within museum services.”

Museum workers utilise the discourses in relation to their own values and activities, rather than to anything outward-facing.

“as museum workers utilise the discourses in relation to their own values and activities, rather than to anything outward-facing.”

With multiple interpretations of key policy concepts, there were different routes to implementation.

“With multiple interpretations of key policy concepts, there were different routes to implementation.”

Museum workers have been shown to be key agents in utilising the rhetoric related to the 'new museology' in the pursuit of multiple museum functions and in managing their own practices.

“Museum workers have been shown to be key agents in utilising the rhetoric related to the 'new museology' in the pursuit of multiple museum functions and in managing their own practices.”

None of the museums and services examined could be seen to be unambiguously 'new museological' in orientation.

“We believe that none of the museums and services that we have examined could be seen to be unambiguously 'new museological' in orientation.”

Workers often had their professional functions to undertake alongside more generic, managerial functions.

“Workers often had their professional functions to undertake alongside more generic, managerial functions.”

There was evidence of polarisation within museum services based on museum function and worker's roles, especially between managers and traditional curatorial roles.

“There was evidence of polarisation within museums services based on museum function and worker's roles, especially between managers and traditional curatorial roles.”

The ambiguity of policy and policy direction often created more room at the ground level for museum workers to pursue their own ideas and values.

“The ambiguity of policy and policy direction often created more room at the ground level for museum workers to pursue their own ideas and values.”

The practical implementation of the 'new museology' is linked to the values held by museum workers themselves and how they relate it to their activities at the ground level.

“The practical implementation of the 'new museology' is linked to the values held by museum workers themselves and how they relate it to their activities at the ground level.”

The polarisation of factions within museum services is related to museum functions and the negotiation of power relationships within the museum services studied.

“These are clearly related to museum functions and the negotiation of power relationships within the museum services studied.”

The policy strategies for Scotland, England and Wales are instrumental in that they aim to fulfil wider outcomes - social, economic and political - than those that are more traditionally cultural in nature.

“The policy strategies for Scotland, England and Wales are therefore instrumental in that they aim to fulfil wider outcomes -social, economic and political -than those that are more traditionally cultural in nature (Gray 2007).”

• cites Gray 2007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

There has been relatively little analysis of actual museum practice to assess the extent to which changes have actually lived up to the assumptions of the 'new museology' across the museums sector as a whole, except in case studies of particular examples of innovative work within individual museums.

“There has, however, been relatively little analysis of actual museum practice to assess the extent to which changes have actually lived up to the assumptions of the 'new museology' across the museums sector as a whole, except in case studies of particular examples of innovative work within individual museums (c.f the essays in Guntarik 2010 and MuseumsEtc 2011)”

• cites Guntarik 2010Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites MuseumsEtc 2011Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

There are multiple and often conflicting high-level policy expectations relating to museums that extend far beyond the more traditionally understood collections-based, curatorial idea of museums.

“There are, therefore, multiple and often conflicting high-level policy expectations relating to museums that extend far beyond the more traditionally understood collections-based, curatorial idea of museums.”

Workers on the ground are able to take advantage of conflictual and ineffective management to increase discretion and power over day-to-day activities.

“Workers on the ground are able to take advantage of conflictual and ineffective management to increase discretion and power over day-to-day activities.”

• cites Lipsky (2010)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The greatest difficulty with all these expectations is that they are always subject to interpretation by those responsible for implementing them.

“The greatest difficulty with all of these expectations lies in the fact that they are always subject to interpretation by those who have the responsibility for implementing them.”

The space where museum workers can use their discretion is helped by a gap between high-level policy expectations and ideas of policy at the ground level.

“The space where museum workers can use their discretion is helped by a gap between highlevel policy expectations and ideas of policy at the ground level (McCall 2009).”

• cites McCall 2009 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Each agent in the policy process has their own professional and personal values and experiences that can influence implementation.

“Each agent in the policy process has their own professional and personal values and experiences that can influence implementation.”

This process produces a picture of compliance with external demands whilst allowing maintenance of existing patterns of work and control.

“This produces a picture of compliance with external demands whilst allowing maintenance of existing patterns of work and control.”

Practical implementation of the 'new museology' can be hindered by current managerial structures and mechanisms.

“Practical implementation of the 'new museology' can thus be hindered by current managerial structures and mechanisms, with many museum workers reporting a perceived fragmentation into polarised groups within museum services.”

The power of staff groups to manage how policies are interpreted and put into action, and how jobs are undertaken, provides them with a central role in managing the demands placed upon them.

“In this process, the power of staff groups to manage how policies are to be interpreted and put into action, and how jobs are to be undertaken, provides them with a central role in managing the demands that are placed upon them.”

The organisational requirement for general policies leads to gaps in coverage which can easily be exploited by implementing staff.

“The organisational requirement for the production of general policies that will cover most eventualities (rather than the production of specific policies to cover every eventuality which is likely to lead to accusations of bureaucratic redtape) leads to the production of gaps in coverage which can easily be exploited by implementing staff.”

Hierarchical relationships and differentiation within museum services are anything but clear.

“Therefore, the hierarchical relationships and differentiation within museums services are anything but clear.”

The capability of staff to adapt formal policies means it is difficult for senior managers to control everything that takes place in service delivery.

“The capability of staff within individual museums and museum services to adapt formal policies, either to make them applicable to the particular circumstances that are faced by staff and organisations, or to make them acceptable to the professional requirements that staff have, means that it is difficult for senior managers to control everything that takes place in service delivery (Lipsky 2010).”

• cites Lipsky 2010Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

This made it hard for museum workers to connect to a defined 'professionalism', except perhaps through the idea of 'bureau-professionalism'.

“This made it hard to connect to a defined 'professionalism', except perhaps through the idea of 'bureau-professionalism', where professionalism and bureaucracy are combined to create 'bureau-professional regimes' (Mintzberg 1983;Newman and Clarke 1994, 23).”

• cites Mintzberg 1983Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Newman and Clarke 1994, 23Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The level of ambiguity endemic within museum services allows for a level of reinterpretation and management of exogenous pressures.

“In both cases, the level of ambiguity that is endemic within museums services allows for the development of a level of reinterpretation and management of exogenous pressures.”

Museum workers are central to the policy process through their control of implementation within their museum services.

“This makes the museum workers central to the policy process through their control of implementation within their museum services.”

Museum workers are key agents in utilising policy discourses to implement multiple functions within their museum services.

“but it is an example of museum workers being key agents in utilising policy discourses to implement multiple functions within their museum services.”

There may be some kind of transition taking place within the museums sector resulting in negotiation and conflict over the roles of staff and overall museum functions.

“The mirroring of these two schools in the traditional and 'new' museology is quite clear and shows that there may be some kind of transition taking place within the museums sector resulting in negotiation and conflict over the roles of staff and overall museum functions:”

The tensions and conflict between staff factions and service managers could be linked to the perceived dilution of traditional professional roles in favour of more general, multi-functional, task-related attributes.

“The tensions and conflict between staff factions and service managers could therefore be linked to the perceived dilution of traditional professional roles in favour of more general, multi-functional, taskrelated attributes.”

It is difficult within these environments to assess the extent to which the principles of the 'new museology' have become a part of the established practices of museum staff.

“It is difficult within these environments to assess the extent to which the principles of the 'new museology' have become a part of the established practices of museum staff.”

The redefinition of the roles and functions of museum workers can be linked to higher organisational and managerial change.

“Therefore, the redefinition of the roles and functions of museum workers can be linked to higher organisational and managerial change.”

The discourse related to the old and 'new museology' is dynamic.

“The discourse related to the old and 'new museology' is dynamic.”

It is the level of discretion at the ground level that allows museum workers to negotiate the multiple expectations within policy and their roles and function.

“It is the level of discretion at the ground level that allows museum workers to negotiate the multiple expectations within policy and their roles and function.”

The extent to which an effective service is delivered has a lot to do with the resilience and creativity of the workers at ground level.

“This paper has shown the extent to which an effective service is delivered has a lot to do with the resilience and creativity of the workers at ground level.”

It is rather a matter of degree depending upon how the factors identified affect individual cases.

“It is rather a matter of degree depending upon how the factors that we have identified affect individual cases.”

Despite this, the 'new museology' and associated discourses have been a useful tool for museum workers.

“Despite this, the 'new museology', and the discourses associated with it, has been a useful tool for museum workers.”

This polarisation is often pushed by management control mechanisms that lead workers to adopt defensive strategies within their services.

“This polarisation is often pushed by management control mechanisms that lead workers to adopt defensive strategies within their services.”

The wider roles of museum staff create difficulties at the policy implementation stage within museums.

“The wider roles of museum staff create difficulties at the policy implementation stage within museums.”

There is a lack of single-purpose roles in general within museums.

“There is a lack of single-purpose roles in general within museums (O'Neil 2008).”

• cites O'Neil 2008Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

This shift in focus indicates that there can be organisational and managerial limitations to the practical application of the 'new museology' within museum services.

“This shift in focus indicates that there can be organisational and managerial limitations to the practical application of the 'new museology' within museum services.”

The extent to which the 'new museology' can be seen to have become embedded within individual museums and museum services is as much a matter of the subjective judgements of museum staff themselves as it is a matter of objective external assessment.

“Thus, the extent to which the 'new museology' can be seen to have become embedded within individual museums and museum services is as much a matter of the subjective judgements of museum staff themselves as it is a matter of objective external assessment.”

The effective implementation of the 'new museology' depends on the degree to which workers themselves believe in its related values.

“This discretion means that the effective implementation of the 'new museology' depends on the degree to which workers themselves believe in its related values.”

These structural constraints and defensive mechanisms can limit the extent to which the intentions and expectations of the 'new museology' can be practically implemented in museums.

“These structural constraints and defensive mechanisms can limit the extent to which the intentions and expectations of the 'new museology' can be practically implemented in museums.”

The negotiations and actions at ground level make workers the key agents in 'effective implementation'.

“However, we would argue that the negotiations and actions at groundlevel make workers the key agents in 'effective implementation'.”

The 'new museology' has had less practical effect than the museology literature might anticipate.

“In conclusion, the 'new museology' has had less practical effect than the museology literature might anticipate.”

The increasing emphasis on the bureaucratic part of the 'bureau-professional' role could limit the extent to which the 'new museology' can be implemented in practice, particularly if it conflicts with broader managerial tendencies and expectations.

“The increasing emphasis on the bureaucratic part of the 'bureau-professional' role could limit the extent to which the 'new museology' can be implemented in practice, particularly if it conflicts with broader managerial tendencies and expectations.”