Executive functions in insight versus non-insight problem solving: An individual differences approach
Open accessAbstract
This study investigated the roles of the executive functions of inhibition and switching, and of verbal and visuo-spatial working memory capacities, in insight and non-insight tasks. A total of 18 insight tasks, 10 non-insight tasks, and measures of individual differences in working memory capacities, switching, and inhibition were administered to 120 participants. Performance on insight problems was not linked with executive functions of inhibition or switching but was linked positively to measures of verbal and visuo-spatial working memory capacities. Non-insight task performance was positively linked to the executive function of switching (but not to inhibition) and to verbal and visuo-spatial working memory capacities. These patterns regarding executive functions were maintained when the insight and non-insight composites were split into verbal and spatial insight and non-insight composite scores. The results are discussed in relation to dual processing accounts of thinking.
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Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
In 120 participants, insight problem solving was associated with verbal and visuo-spatial working memory but not with inhibition or switching, whereas non-insight problem solving was associated with switching and both working memory capacities. The authors interpret this as supporting special-process/Type 1 accounts of restructuring in insight.
Key findings
- Insight composite scores were not predicted by inhibition (β = .09, ns) or switching (β = .13, ns), but were predicted by visuo-spatial working memory (β = .31, t = 3.46, p < .01) and verbal working memory (β = .26, t = 3.01, p < .01) after executive measures were partialled out.
- Non-insight composite scores were predicted by switching (β = .24, t = 2.58, p < .01), visuo-spatial working memory (β = .37, t = 4.39, p < .01), and verbal working memory (β = .23, t = 2.68, p < .01); inhibition was not significant (β = .10, ns).
- The pattern held when composites were split into verbal and spatial insight/non-insight scores: switching predicted verbal non-insight (β = .32, p < .01) and spatial non-insight (β = .20, p < .05), but not verbal or spatial insight; working memory predicted insight composites.
- Composite insight and non-insight scores correlated r = .66, df = 118, p < .01, indicating moderate overlap with c. 55% unshared variance.
Methods
- 120 University of Hertfordshire students aged 18–35 (mean age = 22.64, SD = 6.38; 68 female, 52 male) were paid £20 and administered 18 insight tasks, 10 non-insight tasks, and individual-difference measures of verbal working memory (Sentence and Operation Span), visuo-spatial working memory (Visual Pattern Span and Corsi Blocks), inhibition (Colour and Number Stroop), and switching (Arithmetic and Number-Letter Switching).
- Each problem was presented on a separate sheet; participants read it once and had 4 minutes to attempt solution, could not use blank sheets for notes, and for most tasks could ask only yes/no questions; problem order was varied.
- Solution proportions were averaged into insight (Cronbach’s α = .77) and non-insight (α = .74) composites; hierarchical multiple regressions entered executive measures first, then verbal and visuo-spatial working memory, and parallel analyses used verbal/spatial composites.
Limitations
- Stated in the paper: the study examined a limited range of executive functions; future work could explore updating and focusing/dividing of attention.
- Evident from the text: the correlational individual-differences design cannot establish causal direction between executive/working-memory capacities and problem-solving performance.
- Evident from the text: the sample was university students aged 18–35, so generalizability to other ages or educational groups is unclear; also, insight and non-insight composites shared moderate variance (r = .66), so the distinction is not absolute.
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
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Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
0 of 26 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged
- Findingown data
Non-insight task performance was positively linked to visuo-spatial working memory capacity.
“Non-insight task performance was positively linked to the executive function of switching (but not to inhibition) and to verbal and visuo-spatial working memory capacities.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Performance on insight problems was not linked with executive functions of inhibition or switching.
“Performance on insight problems was not linked with executive functions of inhibition or switching but was linked positively to measures of verbal and visuo-spatial working memory capacities.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Non-insight task performance was positively linked to the executive function of switching.
“Non-insight task performance was positively linked to the executive function of switching (but not to inhibition) and to verbal and visuo-spatial working memory capacities.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Non-insight task performance was not linked to inhibition.
“Non-insight task performance was positively linked to the executive function of switching (but not to inhibition) and to verbal and visuo-spatial working memory capacities.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Non-insight task performance was positively linked to verbal working memory capacity.
“Non-insight task performance was positively linked to the executive function of switching (but not to inhibition) and to verbal and visuo-spatial working memory capacities.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- Findingown data
The patterns regarding executive functions were maintained when the insight and non-insight composites were split into verbal and spatial insight and non-insight composite scores.
“These patterns regarding executive functions were maintained when the insight and non-insight composites were split into verbal and spatial insight and non-insight composite scores.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Performance on insight problems was positively linked to measures of verbal working memory capacity.
“Performance on insight problems was not linked with executive functions of inhibition or switching but was linked positively to measures of verbal and visuo-spatial working memory capacities.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Performance on insight problems was positively linked to measures of visuo-spatial working memory capacity.
“Performance on insight problems was not linked with executive functions of inhibition or switching but was linked positively to measures of verbal and visuo-spatial working memory capacities.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The role of executive processes, especially switching, holds for verbal and spatial non-insight problems considered separately.
“Similarly, the role of executive processes, especially of switching, holds for verbal and spatial non-insight problems considered separately.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
In hierarchical multiple regression, insight problem solving was predicted significantly by visuo-spatial and verbal working memory span after executive functions were partialled out.
“From Table 3, insight problem solving was predicted significantly by visuo-spatial and verbal working memory span while non-insight problem solving was predicted by switching efficiency as well as by verbal and visuo-spatial working memory span scores after executive functions partialled out.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Neither switching nor inhibition contributed to predicting insight problem solving scores.
“However, neither of the executive measures of switching or inhibition contributed to predicting insight problem solving scores.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
In hierarchical multiple regression, non-insight problem solving was predicted by switching efficiency as well as by verbal and visuo-spatial working memory span scores after executive functions were partialled out.
“From Table 3, insight problem solving was predicted significantly by visuo-spatial and verbal working memory span while non-insight problem solving was predicted by switching efficiency as well as by verbal and visuo-spatial working memory span scores after executive functions partialled out.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Sio and Ormerod's meta-analytic report on incubation studies indicated different processes underlying verbal and spatial insight tasks.
“Sio and Ormerod”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Sio and Ormerod (2009)
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
Differences in spatial flexibility were associated with better performance on spatial insight tasks.
“differences in spatial flexibility were associated with better performance on spatial insight tasks”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Gilhooly and Murphy (2005)
Not checked in the free run.
- Study design and conductcitation
The insight and non-insight problems used were largely drawn from a set previously validated by a cluster analysis supporting the distinction between insight and non-insight problems.
“The problems used here were largely drawn from a set investigated in a previous study in which Gilhooly and Murphy (2005) reported a cluster analysis that supported the distinction between insight and non-insight problems.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Gilhooly and Murphy (2005)
Not checked in the free run.
- Study design and conductcitation
The division of problems into spatial and verbal is supported by prior findings and a meta-analytic report.
“The division of problems into spatial and verbal is supported (i) by Gilhooly and Murphy”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Gilhooly and Murphy (2005)
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Sio and Ormerod (2009)
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
Individual differences in ability to control attention were associated with solving larger space insight problems.
“were associated with solving larger space insight problems”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Ash and Wiley (2006)
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
Individual differences in ability to control attention were not associated with solving small space insight problems.
“individual differences in ability to control attention (as indicated by working memory spans which involve attentional control) were not associated with solving small space insight problems”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Ash and Wiley (2006)
Not checked in the free run.
- Interpretationreasoning
Greater working memory capacity increases the likelihood of re-structuring or insight solution.
“Thus, the richer the representation of the problem in working memory, the more likely that key elements will be represented in working memory and be available for re-interpretation; so, the greater the working memory capacity the more likely is re-structuring or insight solution to occur.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Working memory span measures tap both storage and executive functions.
- Interpretationown data
The patterns of loading of non-insight tasks and insight tasks on individual difference measures of Type 2/executive functions differ in interpretable ways.
“We propose that the patterns of loading of non-insight tasks and insight tasks on individual difference measures of Type 2/executive functions differ in interpretable ways.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: The individual difference measures of inhibition, switching, and working memory are indices of Type 2 processes.
- Rests on an assumption: The problems classified as insight and non-insight are valid instances of those categories.
- Interpretationown data
The results provide further behavioural evidence in support of empirical distinctions between insight and non-insight tasks.
“Thus, the results reported here provide further behavioural evidence in support of empirical distinctions between insight and non-insight tasks and so add to the differences reported by Metcalfe and Weibe (1987), Schooler et al. (1993), Beeman-Jung et al. (2004), Murray and Byrne (2005), Gilhooly and Murphy (2005) and Fleck (2008).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Metcalfe and Weibe (1987)
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Schooler et al. (1993)
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Fleck (2008)
Not checked in the free run.
- The authors state this as an assumption: The individual difference measures of inhibition, switching, and working memory are indices of Type 2 processes.
- Rests on an assumption: The problems classified as insight and non-insight are valid instances of those categories.
- Interpretationreasoning
Ability to switch goals would be helpful in carrying out systematic searches of possible actions in non-insight problems.
“Ability to switch goals would be helpful in carrying out systematic searches of possible actions in non-insight problems.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: The individual difference measures of inhibition, switching, and working memory are indices of Type 2 processes.
- Rests on an assumption: The problems classified as insight and non-insight are valid instances of those categories.
- Interpretationreasoning
Many tasks characterised as verbal may also evoke use of spatial short-term storage processes.
“This suggests that many tasks characterised as verbal may also evoke use of spatial short term storage processes in solving attempts, for example by evoking imagery based strategies.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Working memory span measures tap both storage and executive functions.
- Study design and conductreasoning
The present results should be reliable compared with previous studies because the study used larger sets of problems and a large sample.
“Previous studies had generally contrasted relatively few examples of presumed insight and non-insight problems and the present study used larger sets of problems than had been used in single studies hitherto together with a large sample of participants and so the present results should be reliable compared with those of previous studies.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
To solve a non-insight problem, a well-controlled search process within the original structuring is generally necessary and sufficient.
“From the above analysis, to solve a non-insight problem, such the Tower of Hanoi, a well controlled search process within the original structuring will generally be necessary and sufficient to reach the solution.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The problems classified as insight and non-insight are valid instances of those categories.
- Interpretationreasoning
Carrying out a well-controlled search process should be easier for participants who can exercise good levels of executive control.
“Carrying out a well controlled search process should be easier for participants who can exercise good levels of executive control.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: The individual difference measures of inhibition, switching, and working memory are indices of Type 2 processes.
- Rests on an assumption: The problems classified as insight and non-insight are valid instances of those categories.
- Interpretationown data
Overall, Type 2 executive control processes play a smaller role relative to Type 1 processes in insight problem solving than in non-insight tasks.
“Overall, the present results support the conclusion, also reached by Fleck (2008), using a different approach, that Type 2 executive control processes play a smaller role relative to Type 1 processes in insight problem solving than in non-insight tasks.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Fleck (2008)
Not checked in the free run.
- The authors state this as an assumption: The individual difference measures of inhibition, switching, and working memory are indices of Type 2 processes.
- Rests on an assumption: The problems classified as insight and non-insight are valid instances of those categories.
- Interpretationcitation
The significant independent contributions of working memory capacity scores to predicting both non-insight and insight solving, after executive function measures were partialled out, could reflect necessary use of some storage capacity in both types of problem solving.
“The significant independent contributions of working memory capacity scores to predicting both noninsight and insight solving, after the executive function measures were partialled out, could reflect necessary use of some storage capacity in both types of problem solving, as Fleck (2008) suggested.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Fleck (2008)
Not checked in the free run.
- Rests on an assumption: Working memory span measures tap both storage and executive functions.
- Interpretationown data
The two types of problem tasks were differentiated by the extent to which they drew on executive functions, particularly switching.
“This suggests that the two types of problem tasks were differentiated by the extent to which they drew on executive functions, particularly that of switching.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: The individual difference measures of inhibition, switching, and working memory are indices of Type 2 processes.
- Rests on an assumption: The problems classified as insight and non-insight are valid instances of those categories.
- Interpretationown data
The previous finding by Gilhooly and Murphy (2005) of an association of insight solving with Figural Fluency may need re-interpretation.
“In view of the present results, the previous finding by Gilhooly and Murphy (2005) of an association of insight solving with the presumed executively loaded task of Figural Fluency may need re-interpretation.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Gilhooly and Murphy (2005)
Not checked in the free run.
- The authors state this as an assumption: The individual difference measures of inhibition, switching, and working memory are indices of Type 2 processes.
- Rests on an assumption: The problems classified as insight and non-insight are valid instances of those categories.
- May combine two claims. 13
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 16
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataVerbal working memory capacity contributed to both verbal insight and verbal non-insight problem solving but not to either type of spatial problem solving.
“It appears that verbal working memory capacity contributed to both verbal insight and verbal noninsight problem solving but not to either type of spatial problem solving.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe insight composite and non-insight composite scores correlated with each other (r = .66, df = 118, p < .01), indicating moderate overlap but considerable unshared variance (c. 55%).
“The resulting composites were normally distributed and over the 120 participants and correlated with each other ( r =.66, df =118, p <.01) indicating moderate overlap but with considerable unshared variance ( c. 55%).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataSpatial working memory capacity contributed to all types of problem, somewhat more to spatial than verbal tasks.
“On the other hand, spatial working memory capacity contributed to all types of problem although somewhat more (in terms of β weights) to spatial as against verbal tasks of both types.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe finding of lack of relationship with executive function scores holds for verbal and spatial insight problems when analysed separately as well as for the overall insight problem solving measure.
“The regression results in Table 5 are similar to those in Table 3 and indicate that the finding of lack of relationship with executive function scores holds for verbal and spatial insight problems when analysed separately as well as for the overall insight problem solving measure.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe pattern of simple correlations of working memory and executive function measures with composite insight scores is similar to that with composite non-insight scores except that switching efficiency correlates with non-insight solving but not with insight problem solving.
“The pattern of simple correlations of working memory and executive function measures with composite insight scores is similar to that with composite non-insight scores except that switching efficiency correlates with non-insight solving but not with insight problem solving.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationIn non-insight problems, feelings of warmth predicted closeness to solution.
“In the case of non-insight problems, feelings of warmth predicted closeness to solution”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Metcalfe and Wiebe (1987)
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationIn insight problems, feelings of warmth were unrelated to closeness to solution.
“with insight problems, feelings of warmth were unrelated to closeness to solution”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Metcalfe and Wiebe (1987)
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationInsight problem solving was correlated with measures of attentional switching and working memory storage capacity.
“Murray and Byrne (2005), in a study using 8 insight tasks, reported correlations between insight problem solving and measures of attentional switching and of working memory storage capacity.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Murray and Byrne (2005)
Not checked in the free run.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationIndividual differences in vocabulary were associated with better performance on verbal insight tasks.
“individual differences in vocabulary were associated with better performance on verbal insight tasks”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Gilhooly and Murphy (2005)
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
PremisecitationSelf-reported insight solutions were associated with primes sent to the right hemisphere but not with left-hemisphere primes.
“Self reported insight solutions were associated with primes sent to the right hemisphere but not with left-hemisphere primes.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Bowden and Jung-Beeman (2003)
Not checked in the free run.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationWorking memory span was linked to non-insight problem solving.
“found links between working memory span (which does require attentional control) and non-insight problem solving”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Fleck (2008)
Not checked in the free run.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationParticipants sometimes reported solving CRA problems with insight and sometimes reported solutions without insight.
“participants sometimes reported solving CRA problems”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Bowden and Jung-Beeman (2003)
Not checked in the free run.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationA concurrent counting task caused less interference for insight problems than for non-insight problems.
“found less interference from a concurrent counting task for insight problems than for non-insight problems.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Lavric, Forstmeier and Rippon (2000)
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationInsight problem solving was related to the Figural Fluency task.
“Gilhooly and Murphy (2005) found a relationship between insight problem solving and the Figural Fluency task”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Gilhooly and Murphy (2005)
Not checked in the free run.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationSimple short term storage was linked to insight problem solving.
“between insight problem solving and simple short term storage (which does not require attentional control)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Fleck (2008)
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationInsight problems tended to cluster with other insight problems and non-insight problems tended to cluster with other non-insight problems.
“insight problems did tend to cluster with other insight problems and similarly non-insight problems tended to cluster with other non-insight problems.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Gilhooly and Murphy (2005)
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
PremisecitationConcurrent thinking aloud verbalisation interfered with insight problem solving but not with non-insight problem solving.
“concurrent thinking aloud verbalisation interfered with insight problem solving but not with the non-insight problem solving.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Schooler, Ohlsson and Brooks (1993)
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationSelf-reported insight solutions were associated with increased activity in the right anterior superior temporal gyrus compared to non-insight solutions.
“self-reported insight solutions were associated with increased activity in the right anterior superior temporal gyrus as compared to non-insight solutions.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Jung-Beeman, Bowden, Haberman et al. (2004)
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningIn non-insight problems, search within the original structuring can lead to solution, whereas in insight problems the initial structuring is misleading and solution requires re-structuring of the problem representation.
“In non-insight problems this search phase can lead to solution; however, in insight problems the initial structuring is misleading and solution cannot be reached without re-structuring of the problem representation.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The problems classified as insight and non-insight are valid instances of those categories.
May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningIn both types of problem, the internal representation is complex and must be held in working memory while possible actions or re-interpretations are considered.
“In both types of problem the internal representation of the problem will generally be complex and must be held in working memory while possible actions or re-interpretations are considered.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Working memory span measures tap both storage and executive functions.
May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningFigural Fluency is a complex task not necessarily a pure measure of executive functioning; performance on it may reflect spontaneous, implicit, non-executively loaded processes.
“Figural Fluency is itself a complex task which is not necessarily a pure measure of executive functioning and it may be that performance on that task also reflects at least some spontaneous, implicit nonexecutively loaded processes that lead to new directions of work in producing new patterns in the Figural task.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: The individual difference measures of inhibition, switching, and working memory are indices of Type 2 processes.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
Study design and conductreasoningThe present study examined relatively specific and so purer measures of particular executive processes, namely inhibition and switching.
“The present study examined relatively specific and so purer measures of particular executive processes (viz., inhibition and switching).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataSuccess in insight tasks did not draw on the executive functions of switching or inhibition, and this is consistent with re-structuring solutions involving spontaneous, implicit, non-executively loaded processes.
“It appears from the present results that success in the insight tasks did not draw on the executive functions of switching or inhibition and this is consistent with the view that re-structuring solutions involved spontaneous, implicit, nonexecutively loading processes.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: The individual difference measures of inhibition, switching, and working memory are indices of Type 2 processes.
- Rests on an assumption: The problems classified as insight and non-insight are valid instances of those categories.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).
InterpretationreasoningFor re-interpretation of key elements to take place, even unconsciously, such elements must be present in working memory.
“It is plausible to suppose that for re-interpretation of key elements in the representation to take place, even through unconscious processes, such elements must be present in working memory (e.g., to activate concepts related to the initial interpretation).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Working memory span measures tap both storage and executive functions.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).
Interpretationnone givenIn insight tasks, the key step is to achieve an appropriate re-structuring of the problem representation.
“In the insight tasks the key step is to achieve an appropriate re-structuring of the problem representation.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The problems classified as insight and non-insight are valid instances of those categories.
May combine two claims.
Study design and conductnone givenThe present study involved larger samples of tasks (18 insight and 10 non-insight) and of participants (N = 120) than have generally been employed.
“The present study involved larger samples of tasks (18 insight and 10 non-insight, detailed below) and of participants (N = 120) than have generally been employed.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
InterpretationreasoningWith insight tasks, once the correct structuring is reached, the solution seems obvious and little or no search is required.
“Thus, with insight tasks, only when the correct structuring is reached can the problem be solved; but, given the correct structuring, the solution seems obvious and little or no search is required to solve.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The problems classified as insight and non-insight are valid instances of those categories.
The authors state this as an assumption.
Type 2 processes in problem solving draw on executive functions.
“The work here is based on the broad consensus view of working memory as indicated by Baddeley (2003) and assumes that Type 2 processes in problem solving draw on executive functions.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
The present study is based on a generic view of working memory rather than on any one specific detailed model.
“It may be noted that the present study is based on a generic view of working memory rather than on any one specific detailed model.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Both insight and non-insight tasks require temporary storage of possible results of imagined actions while generating further possible results.
“Since both insight and non-insight tasks require temporary storage of possible results of imagined actions while generating further possible results, storage aspects of working memory were expected to be implicated in both types of tasks.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Working memory span measures tap both storage and executive functions.
“Since it is generally held that working memory span measures tap both storage and executive functions, the executive measures were entered in the first stage of the hierarchical analyses and the working memory measures were entered in the second stage.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
The individual difference measures of inhibition, switching, and working memory are indices of Type 2 processes.
“The individual difference measures were used to investigate whether insight and non-insight problem solving scores were predicted equally well by measures of inhibition, switching, and working memory capacities which were taken to be indices of Type 2 processes.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The problems classified as insight and non-insight are valid instances of those categories.
“The Verbal insight problems were: Inverted Pyramid, Trains and Bird, Pound Coins, Ocean Liner, Marriage, Matching Socks, Earth in hole, Reading in dark, Lake, Murples, Horse trading, and Football scores.The Spatial insight problems were: Triangle of coins, Pigpen, Farm, Matchsticks, X ray and Candle.The Verbal Non-insight problems were: Syllogisms, Dinner Party, Cards, and Anagrams.The Spatial Non”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Classic insight problems do not usually trigger an attractive alternative response, whereas the three CRT problems trigger a strong alternative response that must be overridden.
“Classic insight problems (see Gilhooly & Fioratou, 2009;Gilhooly & Murphy, 2005) do not usually trigger an attractive alternative response.”
From The Cognitive Reflection Test as a predictor of performance on heuristics-and-biases tasks (2011) · cites this paper as Gilhooly & Fioratou, 2009
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Colour Stroop control list has the wrong item count
MinorThe task specifies four colours. Four strings of each colour would make 16 control items, not 44.
Reported 44 · recomputed 16
“In the Colour Stroop control condition, 44 strings of five Xs printed in different coloured inks, 4 of each possible colour, were used”
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MethodResultInfluentialIndividual differences in working memory and reading
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Working memory: Looking back and looking forward
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Dual-Processing Accounts of Reasoning, Judgment, and Social Cognition
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Flagged first, then by citations
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
The Cognitive Reflection Test as a predictor of performance on heuristics-and-biases tasks
Toplak, M. E., West, R. F., & Stanovich, K. E. (2011) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-011-0104-1 · Cited by 1,047 · see citing works
Benedek, M., Jauk, E., Sommer, M., Arendasy, M., & Neubauer, A. C. (2014) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2014.05.007 · Cited by 743 · see citing works
- Authors
- Gilhooly, K. J., & Fioratou, E.
- Affiliations
- University of Hertfordshire (GB)
- University of Aberdeen (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Gilhooly, K. J.
- Venue
- Thinking & Reasoning
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2009-10-26
- Volume
- 15
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 355-376
- ISSN
- 1354-6783 (ISSN-L)
- 1464-0708
- OpenAlex
- W1997753459
- Semantic Scholar
- ecbbf30b5cc9799d9e355324a5d1df128f9d035f
- Cited by
- 143
- References
- 59
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 2 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 13 · 2022: 5 · 2021: 13 · 2020: 21 · 2019: 14 · 2018: 12 · 2017: 14 · 2016: 7 · 2015: 7 · 2014: 6 · 2013: 11 · 2012: 7
- FWCI
- 5.08
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- bura.brunel.ac.uk
- Locations
- Thinking & Reasoning (publishedVersion)
- Brunel University Research Archive (BURA) (Brunel University London) (submittedVersion)
- University of Hertfordshire Research Archive (University of Hertfordshire) (submittedVersion)
- Discovery Research Portal (University of Dundee) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Leverhulme Trust
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Creativity in Education and Neuroscience
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Keywords
- insight problem solving, executive function, inhibition, cognitive flexibility, working memory capacity, verbal working memory, visuospatial working memory, individual differences
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-09.
Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-09.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
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