Pattern span: a tool for unwelding visuo–spatial memory
Abstract
Evidence showing that non-verbal short-term memory has distinct visual and spatial/sequential components is reviewed. A new test, The Visual Patterns Test (VPT), which was designed to measure short-term visual memory largely shorn of its spatio-sequential component, is described. Correlational studies of the VPT and the Corsi Blocks Test with healthy subjects and brain-damaged patients indicate a separation between visual and sequential abilities. This separation of function is supported by double dissociations shown by patients. Moreover, in a selective interference experiment, the VPT and the Corsi tests were found to show a double dissociation pattern of interference from visual and spatio sequential subsidiary tasks, respectively. The present results are discussed in relation to other findings in the literature, and it is concluded that non-verbal short-term memory can indeed be viewed as comprising distinct visual and spatio-sequential components. The VPT will be a useful neuropsychological instrument for measuring the visual component.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Verbal and visuo-spatial memory spans are largely independent in children and adults.
“However, verbal and visuo-spatial memory span are largely independent in both children and adults (Alloway, Gathercole, & Pickering, 2006; Baddeley, Papagno, & Vallar, 1988; Della Sala, Gray, Baddeley, Allamano, & Wilson, 1999).”
From Working memory training involves learning new skills (2019) · cites this paper as Della Sala, Gray, Baddeley, Allamano, & Wilson, 1999
Cites
Mental Rotation of Three-Dimensional Objects
Shepard, R. N., & Metzler, J. (1971) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.171.3972.701 · Cited by 6,246 · see citing works
Berti, A. (1992) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/0028-3932(92)90076-x · Cited by 4,190 · see citing works
From Neuropsychology to Mental Structure
Shallice, T. (1988) · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511526817 · Cited by 4,072 · see citing works
Interhemispheric differences in the localization of psychological processes in man.
Milner, B. (1971) · British Medical Bulletin · doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.bmb.a070866 · Cited by 2,405 · see citing works
Human memory and the medial temporal region of the brain.
Corsi, P. M. (1972) · McGill University · doi:10.82308/6355 · Cited by 1,294 · see citing works
Goldman-Rakic, P. S. (1996) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.1996.0129 · Cited by 1,072 · see citing works
An area specialized for spatial working memory in human frontal cortex.
Courtney, S., Petit, L., Maisog, J., Ungerleider, L. G., & Haxby, J. (1998) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.279.5355.1347 · Cited by 1,010 · see citing works
Dissociating Verbal and Spatial Working Memory Using PET
Smith, E. E., Jonides, J., & Koeppe, R. A. (1996) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/6.1.11 · Cited by 962 · see citing works
Object and Spatial Visual Working Memory Activate Separate Neural Systems in Human Cortex
Courtney, S. M., Ungerleider, L. G., Keil, K., & Haxby, J. V. (1996) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/6.1.39 · Cited by 891 · see citing works
Verbal and spatial immediate memory span: Normative data from 1355 adults and 1112 children
Orsini, A., Grossi, D., Capitani, E., Laiacona, M., Papagno, C., & Vallar, G. (1987) · Neurological Sciences · doi:10.1007/bf02333660 · Cited by 836 · see citing works
Disorders of space exploration and cognition
Renzi, E. D. (1982) · Cited by 724 · see citing works
Allport, D. A. (2024) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.4324/9781003582885-4 · Cited by 633 · see citing works
Independent Functioning of Verbal Memory Stores: A Neuropsychological Study
Shallice, T., & Warrington, E. K. (1970) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1080/00335557043000203 · Cited by 623 · see citing works
Neuropsychological Impairments of Short-Term Memory
(1990) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511665547 · Cited by 589 · see citing works
From neuropsychology to mental structure
Jennekens-Schinkel, A. (1989) · Journal of the Neurological Sciences · doi:10.1016/0022-510x(89)90066-x · Cited by 546 · see citing works
Spatial versus Object Working Memory: PET Investigations
Smith, E. E., Jonides, J. J., Koeppe, R. A., Awh, E., Schumacher, E. H., & Minoshima, S. (1995) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn.1995.7.3.337 · Cited by 512 · see citing works
The Suppression of Visualization by Reading
Brooks, L. R. (1967) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1080/14640746708400105 · Cited by 503 · see citing works
Owen, A. M. (1997) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1111/j.1460-9568.1997.tb01487.x · Cited by 454 · see citing works
Two visual systems in mental imagery
Levine, D. N., Warach, J. D., & Farah, M. J. (1985) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.35.7.1010 · Cited by 422 · see citing works
Verbal and Non-Verbal Short-Term Memory Impairment Following Hemispheric Damage
Renzi, E. D., & Nichelli, P. (1975) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/s0010-9452(75)80026-8 · Cited by 411 · see citing works
Disorders of Space Exploration and Cognition
Mesulam, M.-M. (1982) · Trends in Neurosciences · doi:10.1016/0166-2236(82)90150-3 · Cited by 374 · see citing works
Interference with visual short-term memory
Logie, R. H., Zucco, G. M., & Baddeley, A. D. (1990) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/0001-6918(90)90066-o · Cited by 355 · see citing works
Self-citationVisuo-Spatial Processing in Working Memory
Logie, R. H. (1986) · The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A · doi:10.1080/14640748608401596 · Cited by 354 · see citing works
Meunier, M. (1997) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/s0028-3932(97)00027-4 · Cited by 348 · see citing works
Logie, R. H., & Pearson, D. (1997) · The European Journal of Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1080/713752559 · Cited by 322 · see citing works
Mental Images in Human Cognition
(1991) · Advances in psychology · doi:10.1016/s0166-4115(08)x6020-0 · Cited by 315 · see citing works
Disorders of visual perception in patients with localised cerebral lesions
Warrington, E. K., & James, M. (1967) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/0028-3932(67)90040-1 · Cited by 254 · see citing works
Chapter 7 Visuo-spatial working memory: Visual, spatial or central executive?
Logie, R. H., & Marchetti, C. (1991) · Advances in psychology · doi:10.1016/s0166-4115(08)60507-5 · Cited by 247 · see citing works
Irrelevant Pictures in Visual Working Memory
Quinn, J. G., & McConnell, J. (1996) · The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A · doi:10.1080/713755613 · Cited by 245 · see citing works
Neuropsychological impairments of short-term memory
(1991) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.28-3565 · Cited by 235 · see citing works
Spatial Memory and Hemispheric Locus of Lesion
Renzi, E. D., FAGLIONI, P., & Previdi, P. (1977) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/s0010-9452(77)80022-1 · Cited by 218 · see citing works
Movement and Working Memory: Patterns and Positions in Space
Smyth, M. M., Pearson, N. A., & Pendleton, L. R. (1988) · The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A · doi:10.1080/02724988843000041 · Cited by 217 · see citing works
Smyth, M. M., & Pendleton, L. R. (1989) · The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A · doi:10.1080/14640748908402363 · Cited by 209 · see citing works
Impairment of the Visuo-Spatial Sketch Pad
Hanley, J. R., Young, A. W., & Pearson, N. A. (1991) · The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A · doi:10.1080/14640749108401001 · Cited by 194 · see citing works
Tresch, M. C., Sinnamon, H. M., & Seamon, J. G. (1993) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/0028-3932(93)90085-e · Cited by 161 · see citing works
A case study of mental imagery deficit
Farah, M. J., Levine, D. N., & Calvanio, R. (1988) · Brain and Cognition · doi:10.1016/0278-2626(88)90046-2 · Cited by 153 · see citing works
Space and Movement in Working Memory
Smyth, M. M., & Pendleton, L. R. (1990) · The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A · doi:10.1080/14640749008401223 · Cited by 128 · see citing works
Newcombe, F., Ratcliff, G., & Damasio, H. (1987) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/0028-3932(87)90127-8 · Cited by 127 · see citing works
Phillips, W. A. (1983) · Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.1983.0056 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
Reaction time and short-term visual memory
Phillips, W. A., & Baddeley, A. (1971) · Psychonomic Science · doi:10.3758/bf03332500 · Cited by 115 · see citing works
Self-citationDeficits in spatial working memory after unilateral temporal lobectomy in man
Feigenbaum, J., Polkey, C. E., & Morris, R. G. (1996) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/0028-3932(95)00107-7 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
The two-component hypothesis of memory deficit in Alzheimer's disease
Baddeley, A., Sala, S. D., & Spinnler, H. R. (1991) · Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/01688639108401051 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
Self-citationDissociation of visual and spatial processing in working memory
Hecker, R., & Mapperson, B. (1997) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/s0028-3932(96)00106-6 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Serial Order in Spatial Immediate Memory
Smyth, M. M., & Scholey, K. A. (1996) · The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A · doi:10.1080/713755615 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
When working memory does not work. The role of working memory in neuropsychology.
Sala, S. D., & Logie, R. H. (1993) · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Memory for visuospatial patterns in Alzheimer's disease
Grossi, D., Becker, J. T., Smith, C. A., et al. (1993) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s003329170003885x · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Developmental fractionation of working memory
Hitch, G. J. (1990) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511665547.013 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
IMPAIRED MEMORY FOR NEW VISUAL FORMS
Hanley, J. R., Pearson, N. A., & Young, A. W. (1990) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/113.4.1131 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Doors and People: Visual and verbal memory after unilateral temporal lobectomy.
Morris, R. G., Abrahams, S., Baddeley, A., & Polkey, C. E. (1995) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/0894-4105.9.4.464 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Self-citationWilson, L., Wiedmann, K. D., Hadley, D. M., et al. (1989) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037//0894-4105.3.4.255 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Self-citationWilson, L., Wiedmann, K. D., Hadley, D. M., et al. (1989) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/h0091750 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Self-citationSpan di memoria visiva a breve termine: dati preliminari
Allamano, N., Stangalino, C., & Sala, S. D. (1994) · Bollettino di Psicologia Applicata · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citation
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Working memory: Looking back and looking forward
Baddeley, A. (2003) · Nature Reviews Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nrn1201 · Cited by 5,200 · see citing works
Self-citationWorking Memory: Theories, Models, and Controversies
Baddeley, A. (2012) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-120710-100422 · Cited by 4,271 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Structure of Working Memory From 4 to 15 Years of Age
Gathercole, S. E., Pickering, S. J., Ambridge, B., & Wearing, H. (2004) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.40.2.177 · Cited by 1,795 · see citing works
Remembering the past and imagining the future: A neural model of spatial memory and imagery.
Byrne, P., Becker, S., & Burgess, N. (2007) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.114.2.340 · Cited by 1,011 · see citing works
Capacity limits of information processing in the brain
Marois, R., & Ivanoff, J. (2005) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2005.04.010 · Cited by 928 · see citing works
Geurts, H. M., Verté, S., Oosterlaan, J., Roeyers, H., & Sergeant, J. A. (2004) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00276.x · Cited by 705 · see citing works
A structural analysis of working memory and related cognitive skills in young children
Alloway, T. P., Gathercole, S. E., Willis, C., & Adams, A.-M. (2004) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2003.10.002 · Cited by 606 · see citing works
Hurlstone, M. J., Hitch, G. J., & Baddeley, A. D. (2014) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0034221 · Cited by 351 · see citing works
Self-citationADHD subtypes: do they differ in their executive functioning profile?
GEURTS, H., VERTE, S., OOSTERLAAN, J., ROEYERS, H., & SERGEANT, J. (2005) · Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology · doi:10.1016/j.acn.2004.11.001 · Cited by 239 · see citing works
Working memory training involves learning new skills
Gathercole, S. E., Dunning, D. L., Holmes, J., & Norris, D. (2019) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/j.jml.2018.10.003 · Cited by 225 · see citing works
The Working Memory Networks of the Human Brain
Linden, D. E. J. (2007) · The Neuroscientist · doi:10.1177/1073858406298480 · Cited by 228 · see citing works
The development of visuo-spatial working memory
Pickering, S. J. (2001) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658210143000182 · Cited by 214 · see citing works
Differentiating insight from non-insight problems
Gilhooly, K., & Murphy, P. (2005) · Thinking & Reasoning · doi:10.1080/13546780442000187 · Cited by 192 · see citing works
Executive functioning in children with autism and Tourette syndrome
VERTÉ, S., GEURTS, H. M., ROEYERS, H., OOSTERLAAN, J., & SERGEANT, J. A. (2005) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579405050200 · Cited by 152 · see citing works
Sarver, D. E., Rapport, M. D., Kofler, M. J., Raiker, J. S., & Friedman, L. M. (2015) · Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10802-015-0011-1 · Cited by 149 · see citing works
Gilhooly, K. J., & Fioratou, E. (2009) · Thinking & Reasoning · doi:10.1080/13546780903178615 · Cited by 143 · see citing works
Consequences of cognitive offloading: Boosting performance but diminishing memory
Grinschgl, S., Papenmeier, F., & Meyerhoff, H. S. (2021) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1177/17470218211008060 · Cited by 147 · see citing works
“In the first test, the participants had to reconstruct visual patterns of coloured squares (Visual Patterns Test; adapted from Della Sala et al., 1999).”
MethodWorking memory, fluid intelligence, and science learning
Yuan, K., Steedle, J., Shavelson, R., Alonzo, A., & Oppezzo, M. (2006) · Educational Research Review · doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2006.08.005 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
The case against specialized visual-spatial short-term memory
Morey, C. C. (2018) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000155 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
COGAM: Measuring and Moderating Cognitive Load in Machine Learning Model Explanations
Abdul, A., von der Weth, C., Kankanhalli, M., & Lim, B. Y. (2020) · Proceedings of the 2020 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3313831.3376615 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
The Language Network Is Recruited but Not Required for Nonverbal Event Semantics
Ivanova, A. A., Mineroff, Z., Zimmerer, V., Kanwisher, N., Varley, R., & Fedorenko, E. (2021) · Neurobiology of Language · doi:10.1162/nol_a_00030 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Interface and interaction design: How mobile touch devices foster cognitive offloading
Grinschgl, S., Meyerhoff, H. S., & Papenmeier, F. (2020) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2020.106317 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Oculomotor preparation as a rehearsal mechanism in spatial working memory
Pearson, D. G., Ball, K., & Smith, D. T. (2014) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2014.05.006 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Can short-term memory be trained?
Norris, D. G., Hall, J., & Gathercole, S. E. (2019) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-019-00901-z · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Role of inner speech on the Luria hand test
Mitsuhashi, S., Hirata, S., & Okuzumi, H. (2018) · Cogent Psychology · doi:10.1080/23311908.2018.1449485 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
- Authors
- Della Sala, S., Gray, C., Baddeley, A., Allamano, N., & Wilson, L.
- Affiliations
- University of Aberdeen (GB)
- University of Bristol (GB)
- Fondazione Salvatore Maugeri (IT)
- ORCID
- Baddeley, Alan
- Venue
- Neuropsychologia
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 1999-09
- Volume
- 37
- Issue
- 10
- Pages
- 1189-1199
- ISSN
- 0028-3932 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2052629590
- Cited by
- 576
- References
- 52
- Citations by year
- 2026: 9 · 2025: 13 · 2024: 20 · 2023: 16 · 2022: 25 · 2021: 22 · 2020: 32 · 2019: 18 · 2018: 24 · 2017: 20 · 2016: 19 · 2015: 26 · 2014: 33 · 2013: 37 · 2012: 24
- FWCI
- 10.81
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Neuropsychologia (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Keywords
- visual memory, double dissociation, interference effects, neuropsychological assessment, brain-damaged patients, visuospatial memory
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Brain Damage, Chronic, Female, Humans, Male, Memory, Short-Term, Middle Aged, Neuropsychological Tests, Psychometrics, Psychomotor Performance, Space Perception, Visual Perception, Case-Control Studies
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
