Ethnic discrimination in hiring decisions: a meta-analysis of correspondence tests 1990–2015
Abstract
For almost 50 years field experiments have been used to study ethnic and racial discrimination in hiring decisions, consistently reporting high rates of discrimination against minority applicants – including immigrants – irrespective of time, location, or minority groups tested. While Peter A. Riach and Judith Rich [2002. “Field Experiments of Discrimination in the Market Place.” The Economic Journal 112 (483): F480–F518] and Judith Rich [2014. “What Do Field Experiments of Discrimination in Markets Tell Us? A Meta Analysis of Studies Conducted since 2000.” In Discussion Paper Series. Bonn: IZA] provide systematic reviews of existing field experiments, no study has undertaken a meta-analysis to examine the findings in the studies reported. In this article, we present a meta-analysis of 738 correspondence tests in 43 separate studies conducted in OECD countries between 1990 and 2015. In addition to summarising research findings, we focus on groups of specific tests to ascertain the robustness of findings, emphasising differences across countries, gender, and economic contexts. Moreover we examine patterns of discrimination, by drawing on the fact that the groups considered in correspondence tests and the contexts of testing vary to some extent. We focus on first- and second-generation immigrants, differences between specific minority groups, the implementation of EU directives, and the length of job application packs.
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Private companies display higher levels of discrimination in correspondence audits compared to public companies.
“Zschirnt & Ruedin (2016) also indicate that private companies display higher levels of discrimination in correspondence audits compared to public companies”
From Prejudice and Discrimination Toward Immigrants (2021) · cites this paper as Zschirnt & Ruedin 2016
Research conducted primarily in Europe and North America has consistently demonstrated evidence of employment discrimination toward immigrants applying for jobs.
“Research conducted primarily in Europe and North America has consistently demonstrated evidence of employment discrimination toward immigrants applying for jobs (see Rich 2014, Zschirnt & Ruedin 2016 for reviews).”
From Prejudice and Discrimination Toward Immigrants (2021) · cites this paper as Zschirnt & Ruedin 2016
The meta-analyses by Zschirnt & Ruedin (2016) and Quillian et al. (2019) find no statistically significant or substantively large difference in discrimination over immigrant generation groups.
“Similarly, the meta-analyses by Zschirnt & Ruedin (2016) and Quillian et al. (2019) find no statistically significant or substantively large difference in discrimination over immigrant generation groups.”
From Comparative Perspectives on Racial Discrimination in Hiring: The Rise of Field Experiments (2021) · cites this paper as Zschirnt & Ruedin (2016)
Zschirnt & Ruedin (2016) find higher discrimination in hiring in Europe than in North America, and lower discrimination in German-speaking countries than the rest of Europe.
“Zschirnt & Ruedin (2016) group countries together and find higher discrimination in hiring in Europe than in North America, and lower discrimination in German-speaking countries than the rest of Europe.”
From Comparative Perspectives on Racial Discrimination in Hiring: The Rise of Field Experiments (2021) · cites this paper as Zschirnt & Ruedin (2016)
Standard errors in meta-analysis can be calculated by building in an extra component of uncertainty because of study-level factors.
“Second, standard errors can be calculated by building in an extra component of uncertainty because of study-level factors, a procedure used by Quillian et al. (2019) and Zschirnt & Ruedin (2016).”
From Comparative Perspectives on Racial Discrimination in Hiring: The Rise of Field Experiments (2021) · cites this paper as Zschirnt & Ruedin (2016)
Germany has a low level of discrimination in hiring, perhaps because of this distinctive practice.
“Germany also has a low level of discrimination in hiring, perhaps because of this distinctive practice (Quillian et al. 2019, Zschirnt & Ruedin 2016).”
From Comparative Perspectives on Racial Discrimination in Hiring: The Rise of Field Experiments (2021) · cites this paper as Zschirnt & Ruedin 2016
Zschirnt & Ruedin (2016) found more discrimination in hiring when country unemployment is very high but little correlation of discrimination and unemployment overall.
“The meta-analysis by Zschirnt & Ruedin (2016), in contrast, finds more discrimination in hiring when country unemployment is very high but little correlation of discrimination and unemployment overall.”
From Comparative Perspectives on Racial Discrimination in Hiring: The Rise of Field Experiments (2021) · cites this paper as Zschirnt & Ruedin (2016)
Cites
A meta-analytic test of intergroup contact theory.
Pettigrew, T. F., & Tropp, L. R. (2006) · Journal of personality and social psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.90.5.751 · Cited by 8,964 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Taste-based discrimination may also be affected by the public debate and attitudes in the population (Pettigrew and Tropp 2006; Pecoraro and Ruedin 2015).”
Ethnic Discrimination in Germany’s Labour Market: A Field Experiment
Kaas, L., & Manger, C. (2012) · German Economic Review · doi:10.1111/j.1468-0475.2011.00538.x · Cited by 509 · see citing works
Experimental Evidence of Discrimination in the Hiring of First‐ and Second‐generation Immigrants
Carlsson, M. (2010) · LABOUR · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9914.2010.00482.x · Cited by 125 · see citing works
Discrimination against latino job applicants: A controlled experiment
Bendick, M., Jackson, C. W., Reinoso, V. A., & Hodges, L. E. (1991) · Human Resource Management · doi:10.1002/hrm.3930300404 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
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Prejudice and Discrimination Toward Immigrants
Esses, V. M. (2021) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-080520-102803 · Cited by 273 · see citing works
Comparative Perspectives on Racial Discrimination in Hiring: The Rise of Field Experiments
Quillian, L., & Midtbøen, A. H. (2021) · Annual Review of Sociology · doi:10.1146/annurev-soc-090420-035144 · Cited by 180 · see citing works
Davies, J., Heasman, B., Livesey, A., Walker, A., Pellicano, E., & Remington, A. (2023) · Autism · doi:10.1177/13623613221145377 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
Who can ride along? Discrimination in a German carpooling market
Carol, S., Eich, D., Keller, M., Steiner, F., & Storz, K. (2019) · Population, Space and Place · doi:10.1002/psp.2249 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Lippens, L., Vermeiren, S., & Baert, S. (2023) · European Economic Review · doi:10.1016/j.euroecorev.2022.104315
- Authors
- Zschirnt, E., & Ruedin, D.
- Affiliations
- nccr – on the move (CH)
- University of the Witwatersrand (ZA)
- Corresponding author
- Zschirnt, Eva
- Venue
- Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2016-01-22
- Volume
- 42
- Issue
- 7
- Pages
- 1115-1134
- ISSN
- 1369-183X (ISSN-L)
- 1469-9451
- OpenAlex
- W967378438
- Cited by
- 597
- References
- 4
- Citations by year
- 2026: 33 · 2025: 67 · 2024: 65 · 2023: 70 · 2022: 77 · 2021: 89 · 2020: 74 · 2019: 60 · 2018: 36 · 2017: 14 · 2016: 12
- FWCI
- 15.57
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Swiss National Science Foundation (nccr - on the move)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Names, Identity, and Discrimination Research
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Social Sciences › Safety Research › Experimental Behavioral Economics Studies
- Keywords
- ethnic discrimination, racial discrimination, hiring decisions, correspondence test, field experiments, minority candidates, immigrants, first and second generation immigrants, gender differences, EU directives, employment discrimination
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