Exploring Fear of Crime for Those Targeted by Romance Fraud
Open accessAbstract
This article assesses 3,259 romance fraud reports made by individuals to Scamwatch (Australian online reporting portal for fraud), between July 2018 – July 2019 (inclusive). It seeks to highlight experiences of fear of crime as articulated by the complainants. Drawing on frameworks used to analyze fear of crime (specifically the affective, behavioral and cognitive aspects of fear) the article is an exploratory assessment of how fear of crime is evident in those targeted by romance fraud. It builds a model for better understanding differing victim responses to romance fraud and the often-hidden harms involved around the anxieties of victims which importantly, can manifest in both online and offline environments.
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Delayed reporting, concealment, and social withdrawal were frequent, particularly among emotionally manipulative scam victims, such as those experiencing romance fraud.
“The qualitative studies summarized in Table 1 indicated that delayed reporting, concealment, and social withdrawal were frequent, particularly among emotionally manipulative scam victims, such as those experiencing romance fraud (Whitty and Buchanan, 2016; Cross and Lee, 2022; Gould et al., 2023; DeLiema and Witt, 2024).”
From Mental health and psychosocial sequelae of fraud victimization: a systematic review (2026) · cites this paper as Cross and Lee, 2022
The Conclusion (page unavailable) says fraud victims may not disclose their experiences because of shame and stigma and may be isolated in their suffering. That supports concealment and isolation in the context of romance fraud, but the paper does not establish that delayed reporting or social withdrawal were frequent. Its Behavioral responses section (page unavailable) says explicit actions were a less common theme in the reports analyzed. (LLM, conf=0.85)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredPayments may be made via money transfers through money transfer operators such as Western Union or MoneyGram.
“money transfers (7.1b) through money transfer operators (MTO) such as Western Union or MoneyGram (Abubakari, 2024; Cross & Lee, 2022; Smeitink, 2021; Whitty, 2023);”
From Love as Bait: A Scoping Review and Crime Script Analysis of Online Romance Scams (2026) · cites this paper as Cross & Lee, 2022
The Understanding romance fraud section says offenders persuade victims to send direct money transfers. A case quoted in the Conclusion says the complainant sent money through Western Union. Our copy does not mention MoneyGram, so it supports the payment method and one named example, but not the other. (LLM, conf=0.83)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredFeelings of fear have been found in romance scam reports, touching on physical and family safety.
“Feelings of fear have been found in romance scam reports (Cross and Lee, 2022), touching on physical and family safety”
From Tainted Love: a Systematic Literature Review of Online Romance Scam Research (2023) · cites this paper as Cross and Lee, 2022
Beyond the direct fraud, victims can experience ongoing fear for their online and offline personal safety and fear of further victimisation through identity theft.
“Beyond the direct fraud itself, victims can also experience ongoing fear for their online and offline personal safety and fear of further victimisation through identity theft (Cross and Lee 2022).”
From The Language of Romance Crimes (2024) · cites this paper as Cross and Lee 2022
Private channels used by scammers include instant messaging apps like WhatsApp or Google Chat or email.
“This includes instant messaging apps (4a) like Whatsapp or Google Chat (e.g., Cross & Lee, 2022; Niman et al., 2023; Smeitink, 2021; Whitty, 2023) or email (4b) (e.g., Dickinson & Wang, 2024; Gillespie, 2017).”
From Love as Bait: A Scoping Review and Crime Script Analysis of Online Romance Scams (2026) · cites this paper as Cross & Lee, 2022
Third parties in the exploitation scene may pose as authority figures-such as doctors, lawyers, or customs officials-or as fictional family members of the scammer.
“These figures may pose as authority figures—such as doctors (after a supposed accident), lawyers, or customs officials. Sometimes, fictional “family members” of the scammer are also introduced to further persuade the victim (Archer, 2017; Cross & Holt, 2021; Cross & Lee, 2022; Wang & Zhou, 2023).”
From Love as Bait: A Scoping Review and Crime Script Analysis of Online Romance Scams (2026) · cites this paper as Cross & Lee, 2022
The 'Understanding romance fraud' section describes deceptive plotlines generally, and 'The affective aspect of fear of crime' includes a report of an email from a supposed bank. Neither passage says that third parties pose as doctors, lawyers, customs officials, or the scammer’s family members. Searches for those roles and for impersonation of relatives found no passage addressing the claim; page numbers were not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.74)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredPayments may be made via gift cards for platforms such as Amazon or iTunes.
“gift cards (7.1c) for platforms such as Amazon or iTunes (Cross & Lee, 2022; Dickinson et al, 2023; Huhn, 2023);”
From Love as Bait: A Scoping Review and Crime Script Analysis of Online Romance Scams (2026) · cites this paper as Cross & Lee, 2022
The “Understanding romance fraud” section describes requests for money and direct money transfers, but does not mention gift cards or Amazon or iTunes. Searches for “gift cards Amazon iTunes” and “gift card payment vouchers” found no passage addressing that payment method in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.72)
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Cites
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Buchanan, T., & Whitty, M. T. (2014) · Psychology, Crime & Law · doi:10.1080/1068316x.2013.772180 · Cited by 229 · cited 1× · see citing works
“This is a particularly insidious type of fraud, as it not only causes financial harm but can also instill devastating nonfinancial impacts on victims (Buchanan & Whitty, 2014; Cross et al., 2016).”
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“effectively perpetrate these offenses, including established grooming methods, social engineering techniques and psychological abuse (Cross et al., 2018; Whitty, 2013).”
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“Further, it is well established that fraud victims experience large degrees of shame and stigma and are subjects of negative victims blaming attitudes of family, friends and third parties (Cross, 2015; 2018a).”
BackgroundSelf-citationOnline frauds: Learning from victims why they fall for these scams
Button, M., Nicholls, C. M., Kerr, J., & Owen, R. (2014) · Australian & New Zealand Journal of Criminology · doi:10.1177/0004865814521224 · Cited by 193 · cited 1× · see citing works
“There is existing research which documents the negative impacts of having one’s identity compromised and misused in various ways, which includes effects on their physical wellbeing (Button et al., 2014; Cross et al., 2016; Lacey & Cuganesan, 2004; Wyre et al., 2020).”
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“An ethics exemption was granted by the Queensland University of Technology Human Research Ethics Committee (#1,900,000,738) for this data request (see Cross & Holt, 2021 and Cross & Layt, 2021 for other articles that draw from this same dataset).”
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Tainted Love: a Systematic Literature Review of Online Romance Scam Research
Bilz, A., Shepherd, L. A., & Johnson, G. I. (2023) · Interacting with Computers · doi:10.1093/iwc/iwad048 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
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Carter, E. (2024) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009273008 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“What action should l take?”: Help-seeking behaviours of those targeted by romance fraud
Meikle, W., & Cross, C. (2024) · Journal of Economic Criminology · doi:10.1016/j.jeconc.2024.100054 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
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Schokkenbroek, J. M., & Snaphaan, T. (2026) · Trauma, Violence, & Abuse · doi:10.1177/15248380251361046 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“…transfers ( 7.1a ; Huhn, 2023); money transfers ( 7.1b ) through money transfer operators (MTO) such as Western Union or MoneyGram (Abubakari, 2024; Cross & Lee, 2022; Smeitink, 2021; Whitty, 2023); gift cards ( 7.1c ) for platforms such as Amazon or iTunes (Cross & Lee, 2022; Dickinson et al,…”
InfluentialFear of fraud amongst older adults: a hidden epidemic?
Button, M., Shepherd, D., Hawkins, C., & Tapley, J. (2025) · Security Journal · doi:10.1057/s41284-025-00485-1 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Mental health and psychosocial sequelae of fraud victimization: a systematic review
Bai, J., Ho, M.-H., Sung, H.-T., Hung, C.-S., & Tsai, J.-H. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1805536 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Romance Fraud: Its Repercussions on Victims’ Wellbeing
Gauci, C., & Vella, M. G. (2025) · Women & Criminal Justice · doi:10.1080/08974454.2025.2600304 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
- Authors
- Cross, C., & Lee, M.
- Affiliations
- Queensland University of Technology (AU)
- The University of Sydney (AU)
- Corresponding author
- Cross, Cassandra
- Venue
- Victims & Offenders
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2022-06-16
- Volume
- 17
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 735-755
- ISSN
- 1556-4886 (ISSN-L)
- 1556-4991
- OpenAlex
- W4283034223
- Cited by
- 47
- References
- 7
- Citations by year
- 2026: 8 · 2025: 14 · 2024: 15 · 2023: 9 · 2022: 1
- FWCI
- 9.66
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Victims & Offenders (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- QUT ePrints (Queensland University of Technology) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Information Systems › Cybercrime and Law Enforcement Studies
- Social Sciences › Law › Criminal Justice and Penology
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Crime Patterns and Interventions
- Keywords
- romance fraud, fear of crime, online fraud, victim experiences, victim reactions, hidden harm
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