Cited by 413SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 ResearchCOVID-19 Clinical Research StudiesCOVID-19 epidemiological studies

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SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant shows less efficient replication and fusion activity when compared with Delta variant in TMPRSS2-expressed cells

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Zhao, Hanjun, Lu, Lu, Peng, Zheng, Chen, Lin-Lei, Meng, Xinjin, Zhang, Chuyuan, Ip, Jonathan Daniel, Chan, Wan-Mui, Chu, Allen Wing-Ho, Chan, Kwok-Hung, Jin, Dong-Yan, Chen, Honglin, Yuen, Kwok-Yung, To, Kelvin Kai-Wang·2022·Emerging Microbes & Infections

DOI 10.1080/22221751.2021.2023329PMC PMC8774049

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Abstract

The novel SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant (B.1.1.529), first found in early November 2021, has sparked considerable global concern and it has >50 mutations, many of which are known to affect transmissibility or cause immune escape. In this study, we sought to investigate the virological characteristics of the Omicron variant and compared it with the Delta variant which has dominated the world since mid-2021. Omicron variant replicated more slowly than the Delta variant in transmembrane serine protease 2 (TMPRSS2)-overexpressing VeroE6 (VeroE6/TMPRSS2) cells. Notably, the Delta variant replicated well in Calu3 cell line which has robust TMPRSS2 expression, while the Omicron variant replicated poorly in this cell line. Competition assay showed that Delta variant outcompeted Omicron variant in VeroE6/TMPRSS2 and Calu3 cells. To confirm the difference in entry pathway between the Omicron and Delta variants, we assessed the antiviral effect of bafilomycin A1, chloroquine (inhibiting endocytic pathway), and camostat (inhibiting TMPRSS2 pathway). Camostat potently inhibited the Delta variant but not the Omicron variant, while bafilomycin A1 and chloroquine could inhibit both Omicron and Delta variants. Moreover, the Omicron variant also showed weaker cell-cell fusion activity when compared with Delta variant in VeroE6/TMPRSS2 cells. Collectively, our results suggest that Omicron variant infection is not enhanced by TMPRSS2 but is largely mediated via the endocytic pathway. The difference in entry pathway between Omicron and Delta variants may have an implication on the clinical manifestations or disease severity.

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Figure 1. Viral replication in VeroE6/TMPRSS2, VeroE6 and Calu3 cells. (A) Viral replication kinetics in VeroE6/TMPRSS2 cells. (B) Viral replication kinetics in VeroE6 cells. (C) Viral replication kinetics in Calu3 cells. SARS-CoV-2 (0.1 TCID50 of Omicron or Delta variant) was inoculated to cells for viral infection. Cell culture supernatants were collected at indicated time points for RT-qPCR assay to determine viral RNA titres. Data are presented as mean ± SD from two independent experiments with four biological samples. * indicates P < 0.05, ** indicates P < 0.01 and *** indicates P < 0.001 when compared with Omicron variant.CC BY · PubMed Central

Figure 2. Delta variant outcompeted the replication of Omicron variant in VeroE6/TMPRSS2 and Calu3 cells. VeroE6/TMPRSS2, VeroE6, and Calu3 cells were co-infected by the Delta and Omicron variants with the Delta:Omicron ratio of 1:10, 1:1 and 10:1. Cell culture supernatants were collected at 24 hpi (A) and 48 hpi (B) for next-generation sequencing. The percentage of reads corresponding to the Delta and Omicron variant is determined for spike amino acid residues 222 (Omicron: A; Delta: V), 655 (Omicron: Y; Delta H), and 950 (Omicron: D, Delta: N). * indicates P < 0.05, ** indicates P < 0.01 and *** indicates P < 0.001.CC BY · PubMed Central

Figure 3. Camostat could not potently inhibit the replication of Omicron variant in VeroE6/TMPRSS2 cells. (A) Bafilomycin A1 inhibited the Omicron and Delta replication in VeroE6/TMPRSS2 cells. (B) Chloroquine inhibited the Omicron and Delta replication in VeroE6/TMPRSS2 cells. (C) Camostat could potently inhibit Delta variant but not Omicron variant replication in VeroE6/TMPRSS2 cells. Cells were pretreated by the indicated bafilomycin A1, chloroquine or camostat before viral infection, 1000 TCID50 of virus was added to cells for infection and then viral RNA copies in cell lysate were measured at 8 hpi by RT-qPCR. Viral RNA (%) was normalized to the viral RNA copy of untreated virus. ** indicates P < 0.01 and *** indicates P < 0.001 when compared with untreated virus. Data are presented as mean ± SD from three independent biological samples.CC BY · PubMed Central

Figure 4. SARS-CoV-2 mediated cell-cell fusion. (A) Cell GFP images of infected cells at indicated post infection time. (B) Bright field images of infected cells at indicated post infection time. VeroE6/TMPRSS2 cells were transfected with GFP plasmid and infected with 0.1 TCID50 virus (Omicron and Delta variant). Images were taken at 24, 48, and 72 hpi. GFP-transfected cells without viral infection were the negative control of cell fusion (no infection). Scale bar = 50 μm. Experiment images were taken from two independent biological samples.CC BY · PubMed Central

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Method
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BackgroundResult
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“[178], [179] A decrease in severe disease is also consistent with preliminary clinical and epidemiological evidence that had emerged by the time of this manuscript’s preparation, suggesting that patients had less severe disease in South Africa.”
Result
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Background
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Lee, K., Na, Y., Kim, M., Lee, D., Choi, J., Kim, G., & Kim, M.-S. (2024) · Pharmacology Research & Perspectives · doi:10.1002/prp2.1194 · Cited by 3
Mathematical model explains differences in Omicron and Delta SARS-CoV-2 dynamics in Caco-2 and Calu-3 cells
Staroverov, V., Galatenko, A., Knyazev, E., & Tonevitsky, A. (2024) · PeerJ · doi:10.7717/peerj.16964 · Cited by 3
Andrographolide Alleviates Oxidative Damage and Inhibits Apoptosis Induced by IHNV Infection via CTSK/BCL2/Cytc Axis
Liu, Q., Li, L., Zhao, J.-Z., Ren, G., Lu, T.-Y., Shao, Y., & Xu, L. (2023) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms25010308 · Cited by 3
Retracted
Monovalent vaccination with inactivated SARS-CoV-2 BA.5 protects hamsters against Omicron but not non-Omicron variants
Ong, C. P., Tang, K., Cheung, P. H., Zhang, H., Tang, T., Xue, Y., Wang, J., To, K. K., Yuan, S., Ye, Z., et al. (2023) · npj Vaccines · doi:10.1038/s41541-023-00776-x · Cited by 3
Self-citation
Physicochemical effects of emerging exchanges on the spike protein's RBM of the SARS-CoV-2 Omicron subvariants BA.1-BA.5 and its influence on the biological properties and attributes developed by these subvariants
Pondé, R. A. D. A. (2023) · Virology · doi:10.1016/j.virol.2023.109850 · Cited by 9
Difference of Clinical Characteristics in Patients with Omicron and Delta Variants of SARS-CoV-2 in Beijing, China
Tian, D., Pan, Y., Ge, Z.-R., Kong, X.-J., Zhang, Y., Zhang, Q., Wang, A.-B., Yang, P., & Chen, Z.-H. (2023) · Infectious Diseases & Immunity · doi:10.1097/id9.0000000000000081 · Cited by 3
Multi-omics analysis reveals genomic, clinical and immunological features of SARS-CoV-2 virus target genes in pan-cancer
Liao, Y., Wang, J., Zou, J., Liu, Y., Liu, Z., & Huang, Z. (2023) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2023.1112704 · Cited by 4
Cellular electrical impedance to profile SARS-CoV-2 fusion inhibitors and to assess the fusogenic potential of spike mutants
Vanhulle, E., Doijen, J., Stroobants, J., Provinciael, B., Noppen, S., Schols, D., Stevaert, A., & Vermeire, K. (2022) · bioRxiv · doi:10.1016/j.antiviral.2023.105587 · Cited by 3
“In line with several reports (9, 10, 31), with 329 our CEI based cell-cell fusion assay we also measured a reduced fusion activity for the 330 spike protein of the Omicron BA.”
Result
Vaccination with SARS-CoV-2 inactivated vaccines reduced the risk of anxiety and depression in a population majored by health care workers during the recent omicron variant outbreak
Zhao, H., Yu, X., Ye, W., Wang, R.-H., Sheng, J., & Shi, Y. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.989952 · Cited by 3
“The pandemic of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus - 2 (SARS-CoV-2) Omicron variant is a major burden of public health worldwide (Lazarus et al., 2021; Ledford, 2021; Cheung et al., 2022; Del Rio et al., 2022; Wong et al., 2022; Zhao et al., 2022).”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Sub-lineages of the Omicron variant of SARS-CoV-2: characteristic mutations and their relation to epidemiological behavior.
Pujol, F., Zambrano, J. L., Jaspe, R., Hidalgo, M., Loureiro, C., Sulbarán, Y., Moros, Z., Garzaro, D., Vizzi, E., Rangel, H., et al. (2022) · Investigación Clínica · doi:10.54817/ic.v63n3a05 · Cited by 3
“The Omicron also forms fewer syncytia than other lineages 20,21 .”
Network Pharmacology, Molecular Docking and Molecular Dynamics Simulation Studies of the Molecular Targets and Mechanisms of ChuanKeZhi in the Treatment of COVID-19
Yuan, J., Zhu, Y., Zhao, J., Li, L., Chengjie, Z., Chen, M., Zhang, Y., & Shang, Y. (2022) · Natural Product Communications · doi:10.1177/1934578x221116977 · Cited by 5
“The spike protein can bind to angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) on the cell membrane to allow the virus to enter the cell.5 According to some studies, the transmembrane spike (S) glycoprotein consists of two functional subunits, and the combination of the S1 subunit with ACE2 proven to be key in coronavirus entry…”
BackgroundInfluential
Evaluation of the ID NOW Among Symptomatic Individuals During the Omicron Wave
Stokes, W., Venner, A., Buss, E., Tipples, G., & Berenger, B. (2022) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2022.05.19.22275316 · Cited by 3
Tracking resurgence of SARS-CoV-2 in Shenzhen, China, 2023–2025: evidence from wastewater, clinical, and climatic data
Wei, B., Du, C., Lv, Z., Fu, Y., Cheng, Y., Zhang, Z., Du, Z., Peng, Z., Xu, H., Shi, X., et al. (2026) · Environment International · doi:10.1016/j.envint.2026.110208 · Cited by 2
Self-citation
The Proton‐Activated Chloride Channel Inhibits SARS‐CoV‐2 Spike Protein‐Mediated Viral Entry Through the Endosomal Pathway
Koylass, N., Sachithanandham, J., Osei‐Owusu, J., Chen, K. H., Cheng, Y., Pekosz, A. S., & Qiu, Z. (2025) · Journal of Cellular Physiology · doi:10.1002/jcp.70063 · Cited by 3
“Conversely, Omicron variants prefer to use the endosomal path to enter cells (Qu et al. 2023; Zhao et al. 2022; Meng et al. 2022).”
The proton-activated chloride channel inhibits SARS-CoV-2 spike protein-mediated viral entry through the endosomal pathway
Koylass, N., Sachithanandham, J., Osei-Owusu, J., Chen, K., Cheng, H. Y., Pekosz, A., & Qiu, Z. (2025) · bioRxiv · doi:10.1101/2025.03.12.642872 · Cited by 2
Enhancing SARS-CoV-2 Lineage surveillance through the integration of a simple and direct qPCR-based protocol adaptation with established machine learning algorithms
Aksenen, C. F., Ferreira, D. M., Jeronimo, P. M. C., Costa, T. R. D., de Souza, T. C., Lino, B. M. N. S., de Farias, A. A., & Miyajima, F. (2024) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2024.08.09.24310239 · Cited by 2
From Alpha to Omicron and Beyond: Associations Between SARS-CoV-2 Variants and Surgical Outcomes
Verhagen, N. B., Geissler, T., SenthilKumar, G., Gehl, C. J., Shaik, T., Flitcroft, M. A., Yang, X., Taylor, B. W., Ghaferi, A. A., Gould, J. C., et al. (2024) · Journal of Surgical Research · doi:10.1016/j.jss.2024.05.034 · Cited by 3
Clinical severity of Delta and 3 different Omicron sublineages in patients hospitalized because of COVID-19 in a Swiss tertiary center
Orel, E., Sobel, J., Zanella, M., Iten, A., Kaiser, L., Keiser, O., & Vetter, P. (2024) · CMI Communications · doi:10.1016/j.cmicom.2024.100005 · Cited by 2
Network-based analysis between SARS-CoV-2 receptor ACE2 and common host factors in COVID-19 and asthma: Potential mechanistic insights
Yan, Q., Xue-ying, L., Peng, C.-W., Zheng, W., Liu, X., Wen, W., Jiang, Y., Zhan, S., & Huang, X. (2023) · Biomedical Signal Processing and Control · doi:10.1016/j.bspc.2023.105502 · Cited by 4
Immunology of SARS-CoV-2 Infection
Gabdoulkhakova, A. G., Mingaleeva, R. N., Romozanova, A. M., Sagdeeva, A. R., Викторовна, Ф. Ю., Rizvanov, A. A., & Рифкатовна, М. Р. (2024) · Biochemistry (Moscow) · doi:10.1134/s0006297924010048 · Cited by 1
The effects of SARS-CoV-2 on susceptible human cells
Klestova, Z. (2023) · Acta Virologica · doi:10.3389/av.2023.11997 · Cited by 2
Endocytosis inhibitors block SARS-CoV-2 pseudoparticle infection of mink lung epithelium
Song, A., Phandthong, R., & Talbot, P. (2023) · Frontiers in Microbiology · doi:10.3389/fmicb.2023.1258975 · Cited by 2
Self-Association of ACE-2 with Different RBD Amounts: A Dynamic Simulation Perspective on SARS-CoV-2 Infection
Ren, M., Ma, Z., Zhao, L., Wang, Y., An, H., & Sun, F. (2023) · Journal of Chemical Information and Modeling · doi:10.1021/acs.jcim.3c00041 · Cited by 3
Composition of nasopharyngeal microbiota in individuals with SARS-CoV-2 infection across three COVID-19 waves in IndiaPreprint
Bose, T., Wasimuddin, Acharya, V., Pinna, N. K., Kaur, H., Ranjan, M., Jhandylala, S., Nagabandi, T., Varma, B., Tallapaka, K. B., et al. (2023) · bioRxiv · doi:10.1101/2023.01.02.522449 · Cited by 2
“Given that subtle variations exist in the pathophysiology of different viral variants [3] [28], it was anticipated that the associated host microbiota would also exhibit certain changes in each of the three waves.”
Background
A first-in-human clinical study of an intranasal spray of a cocktail containing two synergetic antibodies neutralizes Omicron BA.4/5Preprint
Zhang, X., Luo, F., Zhang, H., Guo, H., Zhou, J., Li, T., Chen, S., Song, S., Shen, M., Wu, Y., et al. (2023) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2023.03.17.23287398 · Cited by 3
Analysis of 394 COVID-19 cases infected with Omicron variant in Shenzhen: impact of underlying diseases to patient’s symptoms
Zhang, P., Cai, Z., He, Z., Chen, P., Wu, W., Lin, Y., Feng, S., Peng, L., Li, J., Yuan, J., et al. (2022) · European journal of medical research · doi:10.1186/s40001-022-00927-1 · Cited by 3
“However, omicron variant displayed less fusion and replication in cells with TMPRSS2 protein [6].”
Background
Prediction of Omicron Virus Using Combined Extended Convolutional and Recurrent Neural Networks Technique on CT-Scan Images
Gupta, A. K., Srinivasulu, A., Hiran, K. K., Sreenivasulu, G., Rajeyyagari, S., & Subramanyam, M. M. (2022) · Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1155/2022/1525615 · Cited by 13
“Various existing and related studies proposed a computer-based Omicron diagnosis architecture for infection prediction; however, these studies are not accurate and lead to huge errors due to common symptoms of distinct chest diseases, including the coronavirus disease 2019 [21].”
Age and sex effects on DNA methylation sites linked to genes implicated in severe COVID-19 and SARS-CoV-2 host cell entry
Bohlin, J., Page, C. M., Lee, Y., Pettersson, J. H. ‐., Jugessur, A., Magnus, P. M., & Håberg, S. E. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0269105 · Cited by 4
“These findings may suggest that age could potentially influence the mode of entry for SARS-CoV-2 [40].”
Background
The genomic and clinical features of the COVID-19 Omicron variant: a narrative review
Hertanto, D. M., Sutanto, H., Lusida, M. I., Kuntaman, K., & Santoso, D. (2022) · F1000Research · doi:10.12688/f1000research.110647.1 · Cited by 2
Immune evasion, infectivity, and membrane fusion of SARS-CoV-2 variants LP.8.1.1, XEC.25.1, XFG, and NB.1.8.1
Jiang, F., Zheng, M., Gao, L., Zhuo, Y., Liang, X.-Q., Chen, Z.-W., Huang, X.-H., Chen, Y.-S., Zeng, Z.-N., Xiao, Y.-F., et al. (2026) · Microbiology spectrum · doi:10.1128/spectrum.03826-25 · Cited by 1
Omicron infection alters the profile of organ failure in severe COVID-19: a multicenter study comparing Omicron and the wild-type strain
Yu, R., Zheng, R., Chen, X.-F., Zhao, H.-Y., Jin, J., Wang, C., Xiang, S.-L., Huang, M., Zhao, H.-S., Wang, Y., et al. (2026) · BMC Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1186/s12879-026-12997-1 · Cited by 1
“Existing studies have shown that certain mutations in the Omicron spike protein enhance its binding affinity to ACE2 (angiotensin-converting enzyme 2), while reducing its dependence on TMPRSS2 and favoring cell entry through the endocytic pathway [21, 22].”
Self-citation
RETRACTED ARTICLE: Genomic and epidemiological characterization of SARS-CoV-2 in Northeastern Brazil: a comprehensive analysis (2020–2024)
Alves, M., Falcão, R. M., Palmeira, O. F. D. J., Paiva-Júnior, S. D. S. L., & Balbino, V. D. Q. (2025) · Archives of Virology · doi:10.1007/s00705-025-06472-6 · Cited by 1
Retracted
pH-induced structural changes in SARS-CoV-2 spike variantsPreprint
Oliveira, A. S. F., Tulli, L., Kearns, F. L., Casalino, L., Rosenfeld, M. A., Berger, I., Schaffitzel, C., Davidson, A. D., Haddrell, A. E., Reid, J. P., et al. (2025) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2025.11.17.688702 · Cited by 1
“Experimental evidence also indicates that different SARS-CoV-2 strains preferentially utilise one cellular entry pathway over the other (127, 135).”
Vacuolar-ATPase inhibitors are antimicrobial agents active against intracellular mycobacteria
Rankine-Wilson, L., Shapira, T., Felker, J., Christofferson, M., Sahile, H. A., Chao, J. D., Afshar, H., Andersen, R. J., Sun, J., & Av‐Gay, Y. (2025) · Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy · doi:10.1128/aac.00478-25 · Cited by 1
The fusion peptide of the spike protein S2 domain may be a mimetic analog of β-coronaviruses and serve as a novel virus-host membrane fusion inhibitor.
Safiriyu, A., Hussain, A., Dewangan, N., Kasle, G., Shindler, K. S., Pal, D., & Sarma, J. D. (2025) · Antiviral Research · doi:10.1016/j.antiviral.2025.106144 · Cited by 1
Diphyllin elicits a doubled-pronged attack on the entry of SARS-CoV-2 by inhibiting cathepsin L and furin
Mao, B., Le‐Trilling, V. T. K., Tang, H., Hu, J., Schmitz, M., Barbet, K., Xu, D., Wei, Z., Guo, B., Mennerich, D., et al. (2024) · Virus Research · doi:10.1016/j.virusres.2024.199485 · Cited by 1
Insights into the Replication Kinetics Profiles of Malaysian SARS-CoV-2 Variant Alpha, Beta, Delta, and Omicron in Vero E6 Cell Line
Zawawi, Z. M., Kalyanasundram, J., Zain, R. M., Ripen, A. M., Basri, D., & Yap, W. (2024) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms251910541 · Cited by 1
Bacterial Proteases as Potentially Exploitable Modulators of SARS-CoV-2 Infection: Logic from the Literature, Informatics, and Inspiration from the Dog
Lushington, G. H., Linde, A., & Melgarejo, T. (2023) · BioTech · doi:10.3390/biotech12040061 · Cited by 3
“Reduced infectious efﬁciency of the cathepsin route may explain the altered symptomology exhibited by omicron variants [90–92] compared with the TMPRSS2-mediated cell fusion perpetrated by delta (and prior) variants [90].”
Background
Molecular Basis of Host-Virus Interactions to Explain Relative Transmission and Severity Caused by Omicron and Delta variants of SARS-CoV-2
Joshi, V., Shareef, B., Angel, B., Angel, A., Joshi, R., Khan, A., Khaneja, P., Peer, N., Sharma, B., Singh, N., et al. (2023) · Journal of Pure and Applied Microbiology · doi:10.22207/jpam.17.3.22 · Cited by 1
Marine Sponge-Derived Secondary Metabolites Modulate SARS-CoV-2 Entry Mechanisms
Steenblock, C., Richter, S., Lindemann, D., Ehrlich, H., Bornstein, S. R., & Bechmann, N. (2023) · Hormone and Metabolic Research · doi:10.1055/a-2173-0277 · Cited by 1
“Recent research papers have reported that the Omicron spike protein is less susceptible to furin cleavage [49–52], and the Omicron VOC primarily employs the endocytosis pathway rather than the furin/TMPRSS2-mediated pathway utilized by other VOCs [49, 50, 53, 54].”
BackgroundInfluential
Exploring the clinical application value of peripheral blood T lymphocyte subset in patients with asymptomatic omicron infection
Li, T.-T., Xu, J., Gao, Y., Wang, X., & Xu, Y. (2023) · European Journal of Medical Research · doi:10.1186/s40001-023-01187-3 · Cited by 1
“In addition, unlike the SARS-CoV-2 virus, omicron is difficult to grow in VERO cells (genetically engineered African green monkey kidney cells), and it is unlikely to cause significant damage (plaque) in these cells [19].”
Method
Association between salivary proteases and protease inhibitors linked with viral infections and oral inflammatory diseases.
Ishii, S., Sakaguchi, W., Yamamura, M., Nagumo, T., Koeda, S., Akiyama, H., Kinuta, M., Nishikubo, S., & Tsukinoki, K. (2023) · Journal of Stomatology Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery · doi:10.1016/j.jormas.2023.101572 · Cited by 1
A Novel Targeted RIG-I Receptor 5′Triphosphate Double Strain RNA-Based Adjuvant Significantly Improves the Immunogenicity of the SARS-CoV-2 Delta-Omicron Chimeric RBD-Dimer Recombinant Protein Vaccine
Bai, Y., An, C., Zhang, X., Li, K., Cheng, F., Cui, B., Song, Z., Liu, D., Zhang, J., He, Q., et al. (2023) · Viruses · doi:10.3390/v15051099 · Cited by 1
In vitro comparison of SARS-CoV-2 variantsPreprint
Phadke, K. S., Higdon, N. B. A., & Bellaire, B. (2023) · bioRxiv · doi:10.1101/2023.03.11.532212 · Cited by 1
“At the same time, the reduced infectivity of delta can be 198 due to its dependence on TMPRSS2 for cell entry (24,26) which is expressed marginally in VeroE6 199 cells (17).”
Background
Persistence of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 Omicron Variant in Children and Utility of Rapid Antigen Testing as an Indicator of Culturable Virus
Lohse, Z. M., Shapiro, J., Lednicky, J., Cash, M., Jun, I., Mavian, C., Tagliamonte, M., Saleem, C., Yang, Y., Nelson, E., et al. (2022) · medRxiv · doi:10.1093/cid/ciac693 · Cited by 1
Characterization of entry pathways, species-specific ACE2 residues determining entry, and antibody neutralization evasion of Omicron BA.1, BA.1.1, BA.2, and BA.3 variantsPreprint
Neerukonda, S. N., Wang, R., Vassell, R. A., Baha, H., Lusvarghi, S., Liu, S., Wang, T. T., Weiss, C. D., & Wang, W. (2022) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2022.06.01.494385
Methylene blue, Mycophenolic acid, Posaconazole, and Niclosamide inhibit SARS-CoV-2Omicron variant BA.1 infection of human airway epithelial explant cultures
Volle, R., Murer, L., Petkidis, A., Andriasyan, V., Savi, A., Bircher, C., Meili, N., Fischer, L., Sequeira, D., Mark, D. K., et al. (2022) · bioRxiv · doi:10.1101/2022.03.30.486461 · Cited by 1
“The altered usage of TMPRSS2 by Omicron appears to make the virion more dependent on low-pH endosomes and the cathepsin entry pathway (14-16).”
Background
Effect of SARS-CoV-2 spike mutations on its activation by TMPRSS2 and TMPRSS13
Stevaert, A., Berwaer, R. V., Raeymaekers, V., Laporte, M., & Naesens, L. (2022) · bioRxiv · doi:10.1101/2022.01.26.477969 · Cited by 1
“The reverse is seen for the omicron variant (6, 7).”
Background
Research Progress of SARS-CoV-2 Omicron Variant
Wang, K.-H. (2022) · Advances in microbiology · doi:10.12677/amb.2022.112006 · Cited by 1
ECDD-S16 exhibits broad-spectrum antiviral activity and inhibits an early, pH-dependent step of influenza virus entry.
Saengfak, R., Manopwisedjaroen, S., Munyoo, B., Chabang, N., Borwornpinyo, S., Hongeng, S., Charoensutthivarakul, S., & Thitithanyanont, A. (2026) · Biochemical Pharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.bcp.2026.118528
The α-helix-facilitating amino acid sequence EAAAK dramatically increases the antiviral activity of SARS-CoV-2 fusion-inhibitory peptides via the endosome fusion pathway
Yao, Z., Zhu, Y., Liu, N., Hu, Y., & He, Y. (2026) · Journal of Virology · doi:10.1128/jvi.01067-26
Laboratory adaptation of the SARS-CoV-2 Delta variant in Vero E6 cells enhances in vitro growth but attenuates human TMPRSS2-dependent fitness, pathogenicity, and transmission
Jin, Q., Yan, F., Song, F., Wang, T., Haiyang, X., Bingqi, S., Xuefeng, W., Gao, Y., & Xianzhu, X. (2026) · Biosafety and Health · doi:10.1016/j.bsheal.2026.09.002

Authors: Zhao, H., Lu, L., Peng, Z., Chen, L.-L., Meng, X., Zhang, C., Ip, J. D., Chan, W.-M., Chu, A. W.-H., Chan, K.-H., Jin, D.-Y., Chen, H., Yuen, K.-Y., & To, K. K.-W.
Affiliations: University of Hong Kong (HK)
Queen Mary Hospital (CN)
Corresponding author: Zhao, Hanjun
To, Kelvin Kai-Wang
ORCID: Zhao, Hanjun
Chen, Lin-Lei
Ip, Jonathan Daniel
Chan, Wan-Mui
Chu, Allen Wing-Ho
Chan, Kwok-Hung
Jin, Dong-Yan
Chen, Honglin
Yuen, Kwok-Yung
To, Kelvin Kai-Wang
Venue: Emerging Microbes & Infections
Publisher: Informa UK Limited
Published: 2022-01-19
Volume: 11
Issue: 1
Pages: 277-283
ISSN: 2222-1751 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1080/22221751.2021.2023329
PMC: PMC8774049
OpenAlex: W4200625712
Cited by: 413
References: 25
Citations by year: 2026: 12 · 2025: 29 · 2024: 68 · 2023: 104 · 2022: 197
FWCI: 29.38
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: gold
doi.org
Licence: cc-by
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ (vor)
Locations: Emerging Microbes & Infections (publishedVersion, cc-by)
PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Funders: Theme-Based Research Scheme (T11-709/21-N)
Topics: Health Sciences › Medicine › Infectious Diseases › SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 Research
Health Sciences › Medicine › Infectious Diseases › COVID-19 Clinical Research Studies
Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Modeling and Simulation › COVID-19 epidemiological studies
Keywords: Omicron variant, Delta variant, viral entry pathways, TMPRSS2, endocytic pathway, viral replication, cell-cell fusion, camostat, bafilomycin A1, chloroquine, competition assay
MeSH terms: Whole Genome Sequencing, COVID-19, SARS-CoV-2, Animals, Carcinoma, Non-Small-Cell Lung, Chlorocebus aethiops, Chloroquine, Endocytosis, Esters, Guanidines, Humans, Lung Neoplasms, Recombinant Proteins, Serine Endopeptidases, Vero Cells, Virus Cultivation, Virus Replication, Macrolides, Cell Line, Tumor, Virus Internalization, Immune Evasion

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SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant shows less efficient replication and fusion activity when compared with Delta variant in TMPRSS2-expressed cells

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