Cited by 1,313Neural and Behavioral Psychology StudiesDevelopmental and Educational NeuropsychologyCognitive Abilities and Testing

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A normative‐developmental study of executive function: A window on prefrontal function in children

Welsh, Marilyn C., Pennington, Bruce F., Groisser, Dena B.·1991·Developmental Neuropsychology

DOI 10.1080/87565649109540483

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Abstract

Normative‐developmental performance on a battery of executive function tasks was investigated. Executive function was defined as goal‐directed behavior, including planning, organized search, and impulse control. Measures were drawn from clinical neuropsychology (visual search, verbal fluency, motor sequencing, and Wisconsin Card Sorting Task [WCST]) and from developmental psychology (Tower of Hanoi [TOH] and Matching Familiar Figures Test [MFFT]). A discriminant task, recognition memory, was administered, and IQ scores were available on a subset of the sample. One hundred subjects ranging from 3 to 12 years old participated; an adult group was also studied. Three major results were found: (a) adult‐level performance on different subsets of the executive function tasks was achieved at three different ages—6 years old, 10 years old, and adolescence; (b) the measures clustered into three different factors reflecting speeded responding, set maintenance, and planning; and (c) most of the executive function tasks were uncorrelated with IQ. The implications of these results for our understanding of the development of prefrontal lobe functions are discussed.

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Authors: Welsh, M. C., Pennington, B. F., & Groisser, D. B.
Affiliations: University of Denver (US)
University of Colorado Health (US)
ORCID: Welsh, Marilyn C.
Pennington, Bruce F.
Venue: Developmental Neuropsychology
Publisher: Informa UK Limited
Published: 1991-01
Volume: 7
Issue: 2
Pages: 131-149
ISSN: 1532-6942 (ISSN-L)
8756-5641
DOI: 10.1080/87565649109540483
OpenAlex: W2098266053
Cited by: 1,313
References: 62
Citations by year: 2026: 10 · 2025: 15 · 2024: 14 · 2023: 29 · 2022: 40 · 2021: 46 · 2020: 45 · 2019: 26 · 2018: 51 · 2017: 47 · 2016: 53 · 2015: 55 · 2014: 60 · 2013: 72 · 2012: 53
FWCI: 7.27
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Developmental Neuropsychology (publishedVersion)
Funders: March of Dimes Foundation
National Institute of Mental Health
Topics: Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
Keywords: executive function, prefrontal cortex development, children, planning, set maintenance, impulse control, verbal fluency, motor sequencing, Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, Tower of Hanoi, Matching Familiar Figures Test, recognition memory

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A normative‐developmental study of executive function: A window on prefrontal function in children

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