Getting a Job: Is There a Motherhood Penalty?
Abstract
Survey research finds that mothers suffer a substantial wage penalty, although the causal mechanism producing it remains elusive. The authors employed a laboratory experiment to evaluate the hypothesis that status-based discrimination plays an important role and an audit study of actual employers to assess its real-world implications. In both studies, participants evaluated application materials for a pair of same-gender equally qualified job candidates who differed on parental status. The laboratory experiment found that mothers were penalized on a host of measures, including perceived competence and recommended starting salary. Men were not penalized for, and sometimes benefited from, being a parent. The audit study showed that actual employers discriminate against mothers, but not against fathers. Mothers experience disadvantages in the workplace in addition to those commonly associated with gender. For example, two recent studies find that employed mothers in the United States suffer a per-child wage penalty of approximately 5%, on average, after controlling for the usual human capital and occupational factors that affect wages (Budig and England 2001; Anderson, Binder, and Krause 2003). In a summary of economic research, Crittenden (2001) concludes that, for those under the age of 35, the pay gap between mothers and nonmothers is larger than the pay gap between men and women. As Glass (2004) notes, employed mothers are 1
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Working mothers, but not working fathers, were perceived less capable and competent than childless workers.
“The claim that Zian had 'diminished capacities' recalls Correll et al.'s (2007) experiments on 'perceptions of competency' of working parents, in that working moth- ers, but not working fathers, were perceived less capable and competent than childless workers.”
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In recruitment, algorithmic bias can manifest in gender, race, skin color, and personality.
“In recruitment, algorithmic bias can manifest in gender, race, skin color, and personality.”
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- Authors
- Correll, S. J., Benard, S., & Paik, I.
- Affiliations
- Cornell University (US)
- Venue
- American Journal of Sociology
- Publisher
- University of Chicago Press
- Published
- 2007-03
- Volume
- 112
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 1297-1339
- ISSN
- 0002-9602 (ISSN-L)
- 1537-5390
- OpenAlex
- W2134267121
- Cited by
- 2,525
- References
- 4
- Citations by year
- 2026: 178 · 2025: 240 · 2024: 178 · 2023: 197 · 2022: 200 · 2021: 188 · 2020: 151 · 2019: 186 · 2018: 142 · 2017: 121 · 2016: 118 · 2015: 127 · 2014: 89 · 2013: 85 · 2012: 73
- FWCI
- 178.48
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- American Journal of Sociology (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Names, Identity, and Discrimination Research
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Work-Family Balance Challenges
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Labour Market and Migration
- Keywords
- motherhood penalty, wage penalty, job applications, employer discrimination, gender discrimination, fathers, perceived competence, starting salaries, labor market discrimination
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