Does carbon pricing reduce emissions? A review of ex-post analyses
Open accessAbstract
Carbon pricing has been hailed as an essential component of any sensible climate policy. Internalize the externalities, the logic goes, and polluters will change their behavior. The theory is elegant, but has carbon pricing worked in practice? Despite a voluminous literature on the topic, there are surprisingly few works that conduct an ex-post analysis, examining how carbon pricing has actually performed. This paper provides a meta-review of ex-post quantitative evaluations of carbon pricing policies around the world since 1990. Four findings stand out. First, though carbon pricing has dominated many political discussions of climate change, only 37 studies assess the actual effects of the policy on emissions reductions, and the vast majority of these are focused on Europe. Second, the majority of studies suggest that the aggregate reductions from carbon pricing on emissions are limited—generally between 0% and 2% per year. However, there is considerable variation across sectors. Third, in general, carbon taxes perform better than emissions trading schemes (ETSs). Finally, studies of the EU-ETS, the oldest ETS, indicate limited average annual reductions—ranging from 0% to 1.5% per annum. For comparison, the IPCC states that emissions must fall by 45% below 2010 levels by 2030 in order to limit warming to 1.5 °C—the goal set by the Paris Agreement (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 2018). Overall, the evidence indicates that carbon pricing has a limited impact on emissions.
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Most studies have confirmed the effectiveness of carbon pricing in reducing emissions.
“Most studies have confirmed the effectiveness of carbon pricing in reducing emissions.”
From The Impact of Carbon Pricing on Corporate Sustainability: Evidence From the European Union (2026) · cites this paper as Green 2021
The Abstract says the majority of studies suggest carbon pricing reduces emissions, but the estimated aggregate reductions are limited—generally 0%–2% per year. The Results (section 5) stress that there is little hard evidence of its performance. Thus the source supports a qualified finding of modest reductions, not the stronger claim that most studies have confirmed its effectiveness. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredMost studies on carbon pricing at the national level reveal a small impact on national emissions.
“These studies reveal a small impact of this type of policy on national emissions.”
From The Impact of Carbon Pricing on Corporate Sustainability: Evidence From the European Union (2026) · cites this paper as Green 2021
The Results report that carbon pricing generally produces small emissions reductions, between 0% and 2% per year. But the Methods say most studies estimate reductions in sectors covered by the policy, while only some extrapolate to broader jurisdictional effects. The review therefore does not establish that most studies found a small impact specifically on national emissions. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
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“…social scientists still conclude—despite mounting empirical evidence that these Type 2 reinforcing policies have failed to achieve Type 4 outcomes (Green 2021)—that attention to economically optimal outcomes are synergistic with addressing the climate crisis as an ecological problem (Tobin 2020).”
BackgroundNet Zero Dairy Farming—Advancing Climate Goals with Big Data and Artificial Intelligence
Neethirajan, S. R. (2024) · Climate · doi:10.3390/cli12020015 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“Implementing carbon pricing mechanisms, like carbon taxes or cap-and-trade systems, encourages emission reductions by attributing a cost to carbon emissions [69,70].”
BackgroundBeyond Carbon Pricing: Tax Reform is Climate Policy
Green, J. F. (2021) · Global Policy · doi:10.1111/1758-5899.12920 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Self-citationAnalysis of carbon productivity for firms in the manufacturing sector of India
Bagchi, P., Sahu, S. K., Kumar, A., & Tan, K. H. (2022) · Technological Forecasting and Social Change · doi:10.1016/j.techfore.2022.121606 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
National and Sub-national Policies and Institutions
Change, I. P. O. C. (2023) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009157926.015 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Three Decades of Climate Mitigation Policy: What Has It Delivered?
Hoppe, J., Hinder, B., Rafaty, R., Patt, A., & Grubb, M. J. (2023) · Annual Review of Environment and Resources · doi:10.1146/annurev-environ-112321-103821 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Assessing the role of carbon pricing in global climate change mitigation strategies
Digitemie, W. N., & Ekemezie, I. O. (2024) · Magna Scientia Advanced Research and Reviews · doi:10.30574/msarr.2024.10.2.0040 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
“Assessing the effectiveness of carbon pricing policies is essential to inform policy decisions, enhance their impact, and address potential challenges and limitations (Green, 2021).”
BackgroundThe effect of cap-and-trade on sectoral emissions: Evidence from California
Leßmann, C., & Kramer, N. (2024) · Energy Policy · doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2024.114066 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
“As the empirical literature on the effectiveness of carbon pricing provides ambiguous evidence (Green, 2021), there is a strong need for more research, particularly on cases that, so far, remain understudied.”
BackgroundInfluentialBélaïd, F., & Al‐Sarihi, A. (2023) · Research in International Business and Finance · doi:10.1016/j.ribaf.2023.102086 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Carbon price and firm greenhouse gas emissions
Adamolekun, G. (2023) · Journal of Environmental Management · doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2023.119496 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Pricing carbon effectively: a pathway for higher climate change ambition
Dominioni, G. (2022) · Climate Policy · doi:10.1080/14693062.2022.2042177 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
“…important in light of the recent literature that: (i) casts doubt on the capacity of explicit carbon pricing to drive significant abatements (Green, 2021) and green technological innovation (Lilliestam et al., 2021), and (ii) highlights the political hurdles that explicit carbon pricing…”
BackgroundThe Energy Transition and Support for the Radical Right: Evidence from the Netherlands
Voeten, E. (2024) · Comparative Political Studies · doi:10.1177/00104140241237468 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
“These policies tend to have distributive implications (e.g. Breetz et al., 2018; Colgan et al., 2021; J. F. Green, 2021).”
Akhtar, M. Z., Zaman, K., Rehman, F. U., Nassani, A. A., Haffar, M., & Abro, M. M. Q. (2021) · Environmental Science and Pollution Research · doi:10.1007/s11356-021-17623-y · Cited by 44 · see citing works
“For instance, Green (2021) argued that carbon taxes can decrease carbon emissions and are comparatively well sound from the emissions trading system.”
BackgroundThe role of rebates in public support for carbon taxes
Fremstad, A., Mildenberger, M., Paul, M., & Stadelmann‐Steffen, I. (2022) · Environmental Research Letters · doi:10.1088/1748-9326/ac8607 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
“As a result, most carbon prices enacted to date have had limited effects on national emissions trajectories [8, 9].”
BackgroundHe, B., Yuan, X., Qian, S., & Li, B. (2023) · Journal of Computing and Information Science in Engineering · doi:10.1115/1.4062545 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Quan, Y., & Duan, M. (2023) · Journal of Environmental Management · doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2023.118481 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Xu, B., Baležentis, T., Štreimikienė, D., & Shen, Z. (2024) · Journal of Cleaner Production · doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2024.140843 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
China’s emissions trading scheme, firms’ R&D investment and emissions reduction
Yu, J., Liu, P., Shi, X., & Ai, X. (2023) · Economic Analysis and Policy · doi:10.1016/j.eap.2023.09.039 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
LEGISLATIVE RESPONSES TO CLIMATE CHANGE: A GLOBAL REVIEW OF POLICIES AND THEIR EFFECTIVENESS
Akpuokwe, C. U., Adeniyi, A. O., Bakare, S. S., & Eneh, N. E. (2024) · International Journal of Applied Research in Social Sciences · doi:10.51594/ijarss.v6i3.852 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
ASSESSING THE ROLE OF CLIMATE FINANCE IN SUPPORTING DEVELOPING NATIONS: A COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW
Digitemie, W. N., & Ekemezie, I. O. (2024) · Finance & Accounting Research Journal · doi:10.51594/farj.v6i3.926 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Circularity within carbon capture networks: A review of capture and utilization technologies
Ghiat, I., Banu, A., Biçer, Y., Amhamed, A. I., & Al‐Ansari, T. A. (2025) · Journal of CO2 Utilization · doi:10.1016/j.jcou.2025.103075 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Ten new insights in climate science 2021: a horizon scan
Martin, M. A., Alcaraz, O., Bastos, A., Bauer, N., Bertram, C., Blenckner, T., Bowen, K., Brando, P. M., Rudolph, T. B., Büchs, M., et al. (2021) · Global Sustainability · doi:10.1017/sus.2021.25 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“While the economic logic of carbon pricing has been widely advocated, prices have so far been too low to have a significant effect on CO 2 emissions (Green, 2021; Rafaty et al., 2020; The World Bank, 2021).”
Self-citationCarbon pricing and firms’ GHG emissions: Firm-level empirical evidence from East Asia
Le, H., & Azhgaliyeva, D. (2023) · Journal of Cleaner Production · doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.139504 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Gao, J. X., Wang, C., Wang, Z., Lin, J., Zhang, R., Wu, X., Xu, G., & Wang, Z. (2023) · Energy · doi:10.1016/j.energy.2023.129518 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Is a fair energy transition possible? Evidence from the French low-carbon strategy
Ravigné, E., Ghersi, F., & Nadaud, F. (2022) · Ecological Economics · doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2022.107397 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
International Energy Politics in an Age of Climate Change
Colgan, J. D., & Hinthorn, M. (2022) · Annual Review of Political Science · doi:10.1146/annurev-polisci-051421-124241 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
An optimized and interpretable carbon price prediction: Explainable deep learning model
Sayed, G. I., El-Latif, E. I. A., Darwish, A., Snåšel, V., & Hassanien, A. E. (2024) · Chaos Solitons & Fractals · doi:10.1016/j.chaos.2024.115533 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Research on the Blue Carbon Trading Market System under Blockchain Technology
Zhao, C., Sun, J., Gong, Y., Li, Z., & Zhou, P. (2022) · Energies · doi:10.3390/en15093134 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Pricing for a cooler planet: An empirical analysis of the effect of taxing carbon
Mideksa, T. K. (2024) · Journal of Environmental Economics and Management · doi:10.1016/j.jeem.2024.103034 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Chu, L., Nam, T., Le, T. H. L., Ho, Q. A., & Dang, K. K. (2024) · Energy Policy · doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2024.114293 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
The role of the IPCC in assessing actionable evidence for climate policymaking
Pollitt, H., Mercure, J.-F., Barker, T., Salas, P., & Scrieciu, Ş. (2024) · npj Climate Action · doi:10.1038/s44168-023-00094-x · Cited by 30 · see citing works
“This, unavoidably, requires analysis of human behaviour 66 and past policy successes 41,43 .”
BackgroundAnalysis of recycling and emission reduction models under carbon taxes and government subsidies
Li, Y., Jia, Z., Qin, C., Li, Z., & Ying, J. (2025) · International Review of Economics & Finance · doi:10.1016/j.iref.2025.104052 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Adebayo, T. S., Ibrahim, R. L., Agyekum, E. B., Zawbaa, H. M., & Kamel, S. M. (2022) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e10697 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
“These policies have seen Sweden become the most expensive economy in terms of carbon prices placed on carbon-intensive fuels comprising natural gas and fuel (Green, 2021).”
BackgroundDill, H. (2023) · Climate Policy · doi:10.1080/14693062.2023.2210107 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
“While mitigation initiatives have received extensive attention in the literature from a theoretical perspective, quantitative assessments of how they are actually performing are more limited and growing at a slow pace (Green, 2021; Haites, 2018).”
BackgroundAbadie, A., Chowdhury, S., Mangla, S. K., & Malik, S. (2024) · Industrial Marketing Management · doi:10.1016/j.indmarman.2024.01.001 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
John, C. K., Ajibade, F. O., Ajibade, T. F., Kumar, P., Fadugba, O. G., & Adelodun, B. (2025) · Environmental Impact Assessment Review · doi:10.1016/j.eiar.2025.107930 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
An advanced review of climate change mitigation policies in Germany, France, and the Netherlands
Wang, D., Dong, L., & Mei, J. (2023) · Environmental Research Letters · doi:10.1088/1748-9326/acf58f · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Climate change and carbon pricing: Overcoming three dimensions of failure
Stoll, C., & Mehling, M. (2021) · Energy Research & Social Science · doi:10.1016/j.erss.2021.102062 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Zhang, Y., & Chen, X. (2022) · Environmental Science and Pollution Research · doi:10.1007/s11356-022-24113-2 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
“2021) and carbon tax (Green 2021).”
Changing Prices in a Changing Climate: Electoral Competition and Fossil Fuel Taxation
Finnegan, J. (2022) · Comparative Political Studies · doi:10.1177/00104140221141853 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Zeng, S., Fu, Q., Yang, D., Tian, Y., & Yu, Y. (2023) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su15032203 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
“, outputbased free allowances and mixed allowance) is extensively discussed on the cost-contained, price-responsive allowance supply [25,26] and on the capacity of explicit carbon pricing to drive significant abatements [27].”
The carbon emission reduction effect of green fiscal policy: a quasi-natural experiment
Wang, S., Zhang, Z., Zhou, Z., & Zhong, S. (2024) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-024-71728-1 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Does carbon pricing spur climate innovation? A panel study, 1986–2019
Lim, S., & Prakash, A. (2023) · Journal of Cleaner Production · doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.136459 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Stepanov, I., & Makarov, I. A. (2021) · Post-Communist Economies · doi:10.1080/14631377.2021.1943918 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
The role of sectoral coverage in emission abatement costs: evidence from marginal cost savings
Zhang, Q., Fang, K., Chen, J., Liu, H., & Liu, P. (2022) · Environmental Research Letters · doi:10.1088/1748-9326/ac55b7 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“However, despite these milestones, the limited scope of sectoral coverage remains as one major challenge facing China’s ETS (Fan and Wang 2014,Mu et al 2018, Qi andCheng 2018, Green 2021).”
BackgroundSadiqa, B. A., Zaman, K., Rehman, F. U., Nassani, A. A., Haffar, M., & Abro, M. M. Q. (2022) · Environmental Science and Pollution Research · doi:10.1007/s11356-022-19385-7 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“2021, Stavins 2020, and Green 2021), with a limited number of studies examining emissions-cap trading in a variety of economic situations (see Zhang et al.”
BackgroundBai, C. A., Zhu, Q., & Sarkis, J. (2022) · Computers & Industrial Engineering · doi:10.1016/j.cie.2022.108335 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Khalil, L., Abbas, S., Hussain, K., Zaman, K., Iswan, Salamun, H., Hassan, Z., & Anser, M. K. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0271017 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
RetractedThe economics of forest carbon sequestration: a bibliometric analysis
Verma, P., & Ghosh, P. K. (2023) · Environment Development and Sustainability · doi:10.1007/s10668-023-02922-w · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“Apart from this, Cap-and-Trade and Carbon Credits are some emerging carbon market-based practises under which a ceiling is fixed for the total allowed amount of carbon emissions and then firms are permitted to trade these credits to emit CO 2 up to the agreed limit (Green, 2021).”
Bretter, C., & Schulz, F. (2023) · Climate Policy · doi:10.1080/14693062.2023.2273302 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“…that these policies have fallen short of their theoretical potential (Zabala, 2021) and did not ‘ produce deep emission reductions ’ (Tvinnereim & Mehling, 2018, p. 185) that are necessary to align with the 1.5°C target of the Paris Agreement (Cullenward & Victor, 2020; Haites, 2018; Green, 2021).”
BackgroundInfluentialCarbon pricing and the elasticity of CO2 emissions
Rafaty, R., Dolphin, G., & Pretis, F. (2025) · Energy Economics · doi:10.1016/j.eneco.2025.108298 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Bretter, C., & Schulz, F. (2025) · Ecological Economics · doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2025.108603 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Cárdenas, M., Bonilla, J. P., & Brusa, F. (2021) · Inter-American Development Bank eBooks · doi:10.18235/0003239 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
What do we know about the employment impacts of climate policies? A review of the ex post literature
Godinho, C. (2022) · Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews Climate Change · doi:10.1002/wcc.794 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“Interestingly, they conclude that price incentives of the CCL led to much larger reductions in energy intensity and electricity use compared to energy efficiency and consumption targets negotiated in voluntary Climate Change Agreements (CCAs), speaking to the ex post literature exploring the mitigation impacts of carb…”
BackgroundExpanding climate policy adoption improves national mitigation efforts
Nascimento, L., & Höhne, N. (2023) · npj Climate Action · doi:10.1038/s44168-023-00043-8 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
The politics of domestic climate governance: making sense of complex participation patterns
Boasson, E. L., Burns, C., & Pulver, S. (2022) · Journal of European Public Policy · doi:10.1080/13501763.2022.2096102 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“However, there is little systematic research on business compliance with such initiatives or their effectiveness in changing business practices (Green, 2021; for an exception see Wettestad & Gulbrandsen, 2017).”
BackgroundStranded Assets: Research Gaps and Implications for Climate Policy
von Dulong, A., Gard‐Murray, A., Hagen, A., Jaakkola, N., & Şen, S. (2023) · Review of Environmental Economics and Policy · doi:10.1086/723768 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“As a result, political limitations on carbon pricing have reduced its impact (Green 2021).”
BackgroundCorporate performance: green supply chain management, digital transformation and carbon neutrality
Chen, Y., & Guo, H. (2024) · Management Decision · doi:10.1108/md-12-2023-2344 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Lilliestam, J., Patt, A., & Bersalli, G. (2022) · Environmental and Resource Economics · doi:10.1007/s10640-022-00708-8 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“In the three papers that investigate technological change effects of the EU ETS (Hoffmann 2007; Rogge and Hoffmann 2010) (power sector) and Rogge et al. (2011a) (paper industry)), the findings are in line with LPB2021. These articles find weak effects on innovation, and weak effects on low-carbon investments – particu…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialFouquet, R., & O’Garra, T. (2022) · Energy Policy · doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2022.113278 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Gao, J. X., Wang, Z., Wang, Z., Wang, C., Zhang, R., Xu, G., & Wu, X. (2022) · Energy Reports · doi:10.1016/j.egyr.2022.10.409 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Colgan, J. D. (2021) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197546376.001.0001 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Role of carbon tax in the widespread integration of sustainable strategies in buildings
Elaouzy, Y., & Fadar, A. E. (2023) · Building and Environment · doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2023.110182 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
COSTS AND BENEFITS OF THE PARIS CLIMATE TARGETS
Tol, R. S. J. (2023) · Climate Change Economics · doi:10.1142/s2010007823400031 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Thube, S., Peterson, S., Nachtigall, D., & Ellis, J. (2021) · Environmental Research Letters · doi:10.1088/1748-9326/ac2b61 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“Indeed, carbon pricing so far has had only limited effects on aggregate emission reductions (Green 2021).”
BackgroundMintz‐Woo, K. (2021) · Philosophy Compass · doi:10.1111/phc3.12803 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“Some research suggests that, in the United States, such policies increase support for climate policies (Green, 2021a).”
BackgroundInfluentialPark, H., Khue, P. M., & Lee, J. (2022) · Journal of International Financial Management and Accounting · doi:10.1111/jifm.12211 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
How effective is carbon taxation on residential heating demand? A household-level analysis
Ott, L., & Weber, S. (2021) · Energy Policy · doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2021.112698 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Ten new insights in climate science 2020 – a horizon scan
Pihl, E., Alfredsson, E. C., Bengtsson, M., Bowen, K., Broto, V. C., Chou, K.-T., Cleugh, H., Ebi, K. L., Edwards, C. M., Fisher, E., et al. (2021) · Global Sustainability · doi:10.1017/sus.2021.2 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Climate Governance and Federalism
Fenna, A., Jodoin, S., Setzer, J., Seleguim, F. B., Rei, F., Harrison, K., Yi, H., Cao, S., Adela, Y., Worku, A., et al. (2023) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009249676 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Emissions trading scheme and energy consumption and output structure: Evidence from China
Zhang, J. (2023) · Renewable Energy · doi:10.1016/j.renene.2023.119401 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
The G20 emission projections to 2030 improved since the Paris Agreement, but only slightly
Nascimento, L., Kuramochi, T., & Höhne, N. (2022) · Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change · doi:10.1007/s11027-022-10018-5 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“Studies that investigate the effect of policies on specific mitigation options complement these analyses and help to translate high-level findings into policy advice (Carley 2009; Green 2021).”
BackgroundMintz‐Woo, K. (2023) · Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews Climate Change · doi:10.1002/wcc.858 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“Prices, 2017), and political scientists tend to oppose them (Green, 2021; Mildenberger, 2020; Mildenberger & Stokes, 2020; Rabe, 2018; Stokes, 2020).”
Carbon pricing and the food system: Implications for sustainability and equity
Habib, M., Singh, S., Bist, Y., Kumar, Y., Jan, K., Bashir, K., Jan, S., & Saxena, D. C. (2024) · Trends in Food Science & Technology · doi:10.1016/j.tifs.2024.104577 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
- Authors
- Green, J. F.
- Affiliations
- University of Toronto (CA)
- Corresponding author
- Green, Jessica F
- ORCID
- Green, Jessica F
- Venue
- Environmental Research Letters
- Publisher
- IOP Publishing
- Published
- 2021-03-24
- Volume
- 16
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 043004
- ISSN
- 1748-9326 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W3118647971
- Cited by
- 530
- References
- 87
- Citations by year
- 2026: 81 · 2025: 96 · 2024: 129 · 2023: 108 · 2022: 75 · 2021: 38 · 2020: 1 · 2019: 1
- FWCI
- 66.83
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Environmental Research Letters (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Economics, Econometrics and Finance › Economics and Econometrics › Climate Change Policy and Economics
- Physical Sciences › Energy › Renewable Energy, Sustainability and the Environment › Energy, Environment, and Transportation Policies
- Social Sciences › Economics, Econometrics and Finance › Economics and Econometrics › Energy, Environment, Economic Growth
- Keywords
- carbon pricing, carbon tax, emissions trading scheme, EU Emissions Trading System, emission reduction, climate policy effectiveness, ex-post evaluation, sectoral emissions, internalization of externalities
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