Cited by 751Impact of Technology on AdolescentsCyberloafing and Workplace BehaviorSexuality, Behavior, and Technology

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Validation of a New Scale for Measuring Problematic Internet Use: Implications for Pre-employment Screening

Davis, Richard A., Flett, Gordon L., Besser, Avi·2002·CyberPsychology & Behavior

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Abstract

The current study introduced a theory-driven, multidimensional measure of problematic Internet use: the Online Cognition Scale (OCS). Undergraduate students (n = 211) in an industrial/organizational psychology course completed the OCS, along with measures of procrastination, rejection sensitivity, loneliness, depression, and impulsivity. A confirmatory factor analysis indicated that problematic Internet use consists of four dimensions: diminished impulse control, loneliness/depression, social comfort, and distraction. As hypothesized, the OCS predicted all of the study variables in the expected directions. Representing a departure from previous research in this area, the current article focused on procrastination, impulsivity, and social rejection as key elements of problematic Internet use. Furthermore, interactive applications (e.g., chat) were most related to problematic Internet use, and scores on the OCS predicted being reprimanded at school or work for inappropriate Internet use. As a result, the utility of the OCS for both clinical assessment of Internet addiction and as an organizational preemployment screening measure to identify potential employees who are likely to abuse the Internet in the workplace (also known as "cyberslacking") were discussed.

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“…(Bernardi & Pallanti, 2009), impulsivity (Meerkerk, van den Eijden, Franken, & Garretsen, 2010), loneliness (Caplan, 2002; Ceyhan & Ceyhan, 2008; Davis et al., 2002; Morahan-Martin & Schumacher, 2000), low self-esteem (Caplan, 2002; Kim & Davis, 2009; Niemz, Griffiths, & Banyard, 2005),…”
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Social Networking Addiction Scale
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“There are some tools that measure generalized internet addiction such as Internet addiction scale (Young, 1998), Pathological Internet Use Scale (Morahan-Martin & Schumacher, 2000), Online Cognition Scale (Davis et al., 2002), Internet-Related Problem Scale (Armstrong et al., 2000), etc.”
BackgroundMethod
Relationship between peripheral blood dopamine level and internet addiction disorder in adolescents: a pilot study.
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“Furthermore, high correlations were found with the Online Cognition Scale [23], in particular with the subscale called diminished impulse control [22].”
Method
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“, BI am only able to make meaningful connections with others through video games^) were measured with the 36-item Online Cognition Scale (OCS; Davis et al. 2002).”
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“Davis, Flett, and Besser (2002) created a similar measure that was based on Davis’s Cognitive-Behavioral Model of PIU and focused predominantly on problematic cognitions related to the Internet.”
Method
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“, Davis et al., 2002; LaRose et al., 2003; Pétrie & Gunn, 1998; Young & Rodgers, 1998a). Young and Rodgers (1998a) found that there were mild to moderate levels of depression from a sample of 259 self-diagnosed Internet 'addicts' and concluded that depression was a significant factor in the development of problematic…”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Patterns of Choices on Video Game Genres and Internet Addiction
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“Those results were similar to the original validation study 11 and other adaptation efforts.”
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“…of ten for two reasons: One was related to practicality (we aimed to keep the follow-up questionnaire reasonably short) and the other concerned the content of the items as these particular items captured problematic Internet use that is linked to impulsivity [see original scale information in 13].”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
The Investigation of Prevalence and Risk Factors Associated with Cyber Bullying and Victimization
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“In a study by Ekşi (2012), it was found that among the sub-dimensions of the internet addiction only social isolation predicted cyber bullying significantly.”
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Nomofobi, Netlessfobi ve Gelişmeleri Kaçırma Korkusu: Sporcu Genç Yetişkinler Üzerine Bir Araştırma
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“The former is a mind state, while the latter is an avoidance-oriented response (Davis et al., 2002; Endler & Parker, 1994).”
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“17,19 The present ﬁndings are inconsistent with this perspective as SNS dependency was predicted only by perceptions of social support received through SNSs, not everyday social support from family and friends.”
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“Para ello, se revisaron los cuestionarios de autoinforme más significativos en relación a la AI: Internet Addiction Test (4), Online CognitionScale (11), Chinese Internet Addiction Inventory (25), Generalized Problematic Internet Use Scale (10), Pathological Internet Use Scale (26).”
BackgroundInfluential
Teachers’ personal web use at work
Page, D. (2014) · Behaviour and Information Technology · doi:10.1080/0144929x.2014.928744 · Cited by 38
“Yet the Internet can also be problematic in the workplace (Davis, Flett, and Besser 2002) with employees surﬁng the net, online shopping, uploading holiday pictures to their online proﬁle,forwardingjokeemails,allon‘companytime’(Case andYoung2002;Lim,Teo,andLengLoo2002).”
Background
Empowering College Students to Decrease Digital Distraction Through the Use of Self-Regulated Learning Strategies
Wang, C.-H., Salisbury‐Glennon, J. D., Dai, Y., Lee, S., & Dong, J. (2022) · Contemporary Educational Technology · doi:10.30935/cedtech/12456 · Cited by 68
“This high Internet usage could be explained as a tool for social comfort as well as a distraction from their depression, loneliness, anxiety, or worries (Becker et al., 2013; Davis et al., 2002; Dhir et al., 2018; Shensa et al., 2018).”
Background
Depressed and swiping my problems for later: the moderation effect between procrastination and depressive symptomatology on internet addiction
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“The Survey Instrument The survey instrument was adapted from the earlier Davis, Flett, and Besser (2002) study that examined business students’ intended image on Facebook.”
Method
Perceived problems with computer gaming and internet use among adolescents: measurement tool for non-clinical survey studies
Holstein, B. E., Pedersen, T. P., Bendtsen, P., Madsen, K. R., Meilstrup, C., Nielsen, L., & Rasmussen, M. (2014) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/1471-2458-14-361 · Cited by 37
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Personal Internet Use: The Use of Personal Mobile Devices at the Workplace
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Index of Problematic Online Experiences: Item Characteristics and Correlation with Negative Symptomatology
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“Online media’s sociability is often cited as the reason for the excessive amount of time that people invest in computer-mediated interactions (Davis et al., 2002).”
Background
School-Related Risk Factors of Internet Use Disorders
Kindt, S., Szász-Janocha, C., Rehbein, F., & Lindenberg, K. (2019) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph16244938 · Cited by 39
“Procrastination has been found to be significantly associated with IUD in adolescents [49,50] and adults [51,52].”
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The Effectiveness of a Cognitive-Behavioral Prevention Program for Internet Addiction
Bağatarhan, T., & Siyez, D. M. (2022) · Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1007/s10942-021-00439-7 · Cited by 36
“An example of an item from the OCS is “Using the internet is the way to forget about the things I must do but really do not want to do”.”
MethodInfluential
E−sports playing and its relation to lifestyle behaviors and psychological well-being: A large-scale study of collegiate e-sports players in China
Cheng, M., Chen, L., Pan, Q., Gao, Y., & Li, J. (2023) · Complementary Therapies in Clinical Practice · doi:10.1016/j.ctcp.2023.101731 · Cited by 35
Problematic Online Pornography Use: A Media Attendance Perspective
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The mental status examination in the age of the internet.
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Emergent Self-Regulation Practices in Technology and Social Media Use of Individuals Living with Depression
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Smartphone Addiction and Conflict: An Incentive-Sensitisation Perspective of Addiction for Information Systems
Kuem, J., Ray, S., Hsu, P., & Khansa, L. (2020) · European Journal of Information Systems · doi:10.1080/0960085x.2020.1803154 · Cited by 38
“Such Internet-mediated communication tools are thought to fulfill individuals’ basic needs for social belonging while serving as “a buffer against threatening social interactions” (Davis et al., 2002, p. 332).”
Background
Discipline Yourself Before Life Disciplines You: Deficient Self-Regulation and Mobile Phone Unregulated Use
Soror, A. A., Steelman, Z. R., & Limayem, M. (2012) · 2012 45th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences · doi:10.1109/hicss.2012.219 · Cited by 34
Exhaustion and dependency: a habituation–sensitization perspective on the duality of habit in social media use
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Relationships between morningness, Big Five personality traits, and problematic Internet use in young adult university students: mediating role of depression
Przepiórka, A., Błachnio, A., & Cudo, A. (2020) · Chronobiology International · doi:10.1080/07420528.2020.1851703 · Cited by 37
“In our research we use the concept of problematic Internet use (PIU), which is a multidimensional syndrome with cognitive and behavioral symptoms that has a detrimental effect on a person’s functioning in various domains: social, mental, physical, professional, and educational (Davis et al. 2002).”
Method
Interrelations Between Virtual-World and Real-World Activities: Comparison of Genders, Age Groups, and Pathological and Nonpathological Internet Users
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The association between the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor α4 subunit gene (CHRNA4) rs1044396 and Internet gaming disorder in Korean male adults
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A text mining approach to Internet abuse detection
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“Davis et al. (2002) Problematic Internet use in the workplace Measurement Internet addiction, pathological Internet use,”
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Cognitive-Behavioral Treatments for “Internet Addiction”
Khazaal, Y. (2012) · The Open Addiction Journal · doi:10.2174/1874941001205010030 · Cited by 32
“Emotional relief seems to constitute the negative reinforcement which may enhance the escape behavior.”
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Self-Control and Problematic Internet Use in College Students: The Chain Mediating Effect of Rejection Sensitivity and Loneliness
Fan, Z., Chen, M., & Lin, Y. (2022) · Psychology Research and Behavior Management · doi:10.2147/prbm.s352060 · Cited by 40
“David et al believe that online social interaction is a “socially liberating” experience for such lonely individuals; consequently, they rely too much on the Internet as a tool to communicate with others, which makes it challenging to control their use of the Internet and leads to PIU.(49) From the perspective of soci…”
Background
Differentiating computer-related addictions and high engagement
Charlton, J. P., & Danforth, I. D. W. (2004) · UBIR (University of Greater Manchester) · doi:10.2495/ci040071 · Cited by 32
“[9], Morahan-Martin and Schumacher [15]), since they may contain a mixture of core and peripheral items (this is discussed at greater length in Charlton and Danforth [8]).”
Background
EFFECT OF INTERNET ON THE ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE AND SOCIAL LIFE OF UNIVERSITY STUDENTS IN PAKISTAN
Asdaque, M. M., Khan, M. N., Asad, S. M., & Rizvi, A. (2010) · Cited by 32
Peer contagion processes for problematic internet use among Chinese college students: A process model involving peer pressure and maladaptive cognition
Zhou, N., Ma, S., Li, X., Zhang, J., Liang, Y., Yu, C., Geng, X., Meng, J., Yuan, X., Cao, H., et al. (2018) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2018.09.016 · Cited by 31
A systematic review of the relationship between generic and specific metacognitive beliefs and emotion dysregulation: A metacognitive model of emotion dysregulation
Mansueto, G., Jarach, A., Caselli, G., Ruggiero, G. M., Sassaroli, S., Nikčević, A. V., Spada, M. M., & Palmieri, S. (2024) · Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.2961 · Cited by 35
Examining the psychometric properties of the Maslach Burnout Inventory with a sample of child protective service workers in Korea
Oh, S., & Lee, M. (2008) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2008.07.012 · Cited by 31
Internet Addiction, Mental Health and Academic Performance of School Students/Adolescents
Singh, N., & Barmola, K. C. (2015) · International Journal of Indian Psychology · doi:10.25215/0203.053 · Cited by 31
“A perusal of the literature revealed various names for Internet addiction, including cyberspace addiction, Internet addiction disorder, online addiction, Net addiction, Internet addicted disorder, pathological Internet use, high Internet dependency, and others (Davis et al., 2002; Hur, 2006).”
Background
Predictors for Digital Game Addiction Among Turkish Adolescents
Irmak, A. Y., & Erdoğan, S. (2019) · Journal of Addictions Nursing · doi:10.1097/jan.0000000000000265 · Cited by 33
Associations Among the Big Five Personality Traits, Maladaptive Cognitions, and Internet Addiction Across Three Time Measurements in 3 Months During the COVID-19 Pandemic
Tian, Y., Zhao, Y., Lv, F., Qin, N., & Chen, P. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.654825 · Cited by 30
“Maladaptive Cognitions The short Chinese version of the Online Cognition Scale (OCS) was utilized to measure individuals’ maladaptive cognitions (Davis et al., 2002; Liang, 2008).”
Method
Possible factors affecting internet addiction: a case study of higher education students of Qatar
Khan, H. U., & Awan, M. A. (2017) · International Journal of Business Information Systems · doi:10.1504/ijbis.2017.10007116 · Cited by 30
Development of a short form of the compulsive internet use scale in Switzerland
Gmel, G. E., Khazaal, Y., Studer, J., Baggio, S., & Marmet, S. (2019) · International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1002/mpr.1765 · Cited by 32
Academic Procrastination of University Students: The Role of Problematic Internet Use, Self-Regulated Online Learning, And Academic Self-Efficacy
ÖZYER, K. K., & Altınsoy, F. (2023) · Malaysian Online Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.52380/mojet.2023.11.1.459 · Cited by 36
“When individuals have difficulties in their academic duties, they tend to engage in more enjoyable activities (Davis et al., 2002).”
BackgroundInfluential
Problematic Instant Messaging Use
Neo, R. L., & Škorić, M. M. (2009) · Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication · doi:10.1111/j.1083-6101.2009.01456.x · Cited by 30
“Recent studies investigating the relationship between procrastination and Internet usage have also implicated procrastination as a key indicator of PIU (Davis et al., 2002; Nalwa & Anand, 2003; Philips & Reddie, 2007).”
BackgroundInfluential
Internet addiction and Facebook addiction in Spanish women with eating disorders
Panea-Pizarro, I., López‐Espuela, F., Sánchez, A. M., Domínguez-Martín, A. T., Beato‐Fernández, L., & Morán, J. M. (2020) · Archives of Psychiatric Nursing · doi:10.1016/j.apnu.2020.07.023 · Cited by 29
Internet Addiction and Its Relationship to Gender, Depression and Anxiety Among Medical Students in Anbar Governorate-West of Iraq
Shawi, A. F. A., Hameed, A. K., Shalal, A. I., Kareem, S. S. A., Majeed, M. A., & Humidy, S. T. (2021) · Community Health Equity Research & Policy · doi:10.1177/0272684x20985708 · Cited by 29
Preparing Competent Clinicians: Curricular Applications Based on the Sexual Addiction Counseling Competencies
Hagedorn, W. B. (2009) · Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity The Journal of Treatment and Prevention · doi:10.1080/10720160903399855 · Cited by 28
The effect of phubbing, a behavioral problem, on academic procrastination: The mediating and moderating role of academic self‐efficacy
Parmaksız, İ. (2022) · Psychology in the schools (Print) · doi:10.1002/pits.22765 · Cited by 24
Procrastination Mediates the Relationship between Problematic TikTok Use and Depression among Young Adults
Rogowska, A. M., & Cincio, A. (2024) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm13051247 · Cited by 52
“Finally, Davis et al. [8] found positive moderate correlations between all four dimensions of the newly developed Online Cognition Scale (OCS; loneliness and depression, diminished impulse control, distraction, and social comfort) as a measure of problematic internet use and both procrastination…”
Background
Technology Addiction: How Social Network Sites Impact our Lives
Gerhart, N. (2017) · Informing Science The International Journal of an Emerging Transdiscipline · doi:10.28945/3851 · Cited by 29
“Diminished impulse control was developed as part of the Online Cognition Scale (OCS) (R. A. Davis et al., 2002).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Internet Addiction and Its Cognitive Behavioral Therapy
enormanc, M., Konkan, R., & Zihni, M. (2012) · InTech eBooks · doi:10.5772/26265 · Cited by 28
“…disorder', 'net addiction', 'cyberspace addiction', 'problematic internet use', 'technologic addiction', 'compulsive internet use' and 'internet behavior addiction' (Hall and Parsons 2001; Caplan 2002; Davis et al. 2002; Whang et al. 2003; Lee and Shin 2004; Hur 2006; Widyanto and Griffiths 2007).”
In a Working Mood?
Reinecke, L., & Trepte, S. (2008) · Journal of Media Psychology Theories Methods and Applications · doi:10.1027/1864-1105.20.1.3 · Cited by 28
The Call for a New Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders Diagnosis: Addictive Disorders
Hagedorn, W. B. (2009) · Journal of Addictions & Offender Counseling · doi:10.1002/j.2161-1874.2009.tb00049.x · Cited by 28
Decoding digital dependency: Flow experience and social belonging in short video addiction among middle-aged and elderly Chinese users
Xu, J., Ramayah, T., Arshad, M. Z., Ismail, A., & Jamal, J. B. (2024) · Telematics and Informatics · doi:10.1016/j.tele.2024.102222 · Cited by 33
The relationship between social support and Internet addiction among Chinese college freshmen: A mediated moderation model
Lu, X., Zhang, M., & Zhang, J. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1031566 · Cited by 35
Integrating Technology Addiction and Use: An Empirical Investigation of Online Auction Users
Turel, O., Serenko, A., & Giles, P. A. (2011) · Journal of the Association for Information Systems · Cited by 27
The Mediating Role of Procrastination in the Relationship between Fear of Missing Out and Internet Addiction in University Students
Manap, A., Rizzo, A., Yıldırmaz, A., Dilekçi, Ü., & Yıldırım, M. (2023) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph21010049 · Cited by 29
“This finding concurs with the findings of prior studies in the related literature [30], noting that there is a correlation between procrastination and problematic internet use.”
BackgroundResult
Uso problemático de Internet en una muestra de estudiantes universitarios colombianos
Puerta-Cortés, D. X., & Carbonell, X. (2013) · Repositorio Institucional E-DocUR (Universidad Del Rosario) · Cited by 26

Authors: Davis, R. A., Flett, G. L., & Besser, A.
Affiliations: York University (CA)
Department of Psychology, York University, Toronto, Canada.
ORCID: Davis, Richard A.
Flett, Gordon L.
Venue: CyberPsychology & Behavior
Publisher: SAGE Publications
Published: 2002-08
Volume: 5
Issue: 4
Pages: 331-345
ISSN: 1094-9313 (ISSN-L)
1557-8364
DOI: 10.1089/109493102760275581
OpenAlex: W2086020439
Cited by: 750
References: 56
Citations by year: 2026: 9 · 2025: 19 · 2024: 32 · 2023: 34 · 2022: 59 · 2021: 47 · 2020: 50 · 2019: 39 · 2018: 36 · 2017: 37 · 2016: 45 · 2015: 51 · 2014: 49 · 2013: 41 · 2012: 50
FWCI: 18.15
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: www.liebertpub.com/nv/resources-tools/text-and-data-mining-policy/121/ (tdm)
Locations: CyberPsychology & Behavior (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Impact of Technology on Adolescents
Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Organizational Behavior and Human Resource Management › Cyberloafing and Workplace Behavior
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Sexuality, Behavior, and Technology
Keywords: problematic internet use, internet addiction, pre-employment screening, cyberloafing, procrastination, impulsivity, rejection sensitivity, loneliness, depression, distraction, online chat, scale validation, workplace internet use
MeSH terms: Adult, Cognition, Decision Making, Organizational, Employment, Factor Analysis, Statistical, Female, Humans, Impulsive Behavior, Male, Personnel Selection, Surveys and Questionnaires, Reproducibility of Results, Behavior, Addictive, Internet

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Validation of a New Scale for Measuring Problematic Internet Use: Implications for Pre-employment Screening

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