Cited by 751Impact of Technology on AdolescentsCyberloafing and Workplace BehaviorSexuality, Behavior, and Technology

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Validation of a New Scale for Measuring Problematic Internet Use: Implications for Pre-employment Screening

Davis, Richard A., Flett, Gordon L., Besser, Avi·2002·CyberPsychology & Behavior

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Abstract

The current study introduced a theory-driven, multidimensional measure of problematic Internet use: the Online Cognition Scale (OCS). Undergraduate students (n = 211) in an industrial/organizational psychology course completed the OCS, along with measures of procrastination, rejection sensitivity, loneliness, depression, and impulsivity. A confirmatory factor analysis indicated that problematic Internet use consists of four dimensions: diminished impulse control, loneliness/depression, social comfort, and distraction. As hypothesized, the OCS predicted all of the study variables in the expected directions. Representing a departure from previous research in this area, the current article focused on procrastination, impulsivity, and social rejection as key elements of problematic Internet use. Furthermore, interactive applications (e.g., chat) were most related to problematic Internet use, and scores on the OCS predicted being reprimanded at school or work for inappropriate Internet use. As a result, the utility of the OCS for both clinical assessment of Internet addiction and as an organizational preemployment screening measure to identify potential employees who are likely to abuse the Internet in the workplace (also known as "cyberslacking") were discussed.

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BackgroundMethod
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Background
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Zhang, J., Zhang, Y., & Xu, F. (2019) · Medicine · doi:10.1097/md.0000000000017283 · Cited by 25
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Method
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“, Internet Addiction Test (Young 2011); Generalized Problematic Internet Use Scale (Caplan 2002); and Online Cognition Scale (Davis et al. 2002)].”
BackgroundMethod
Loneliness, Depression, Social Support Levels, and Other Factors Involving the Internet Use of High School Students in Turkey
Kostak, M. A., Dindar, İ., & Dinçkol, R. Z. (2018) · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/s11469-018-9927-3 · Cited by 26
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“The attitude towards the Internet was measured by adopting the Online Cognition Scale (Davis et al., 2002).”
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Deutrom, J., Katos, V., Almourad, M. B., & Ali, R. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19031325 · Cited by 24
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Kern, L., & Acier, D. (2012) · L Évolution Psychiatrique · doi:10.1016/j.evopsy.2012.07.002 · Cited by 24
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Background
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Background
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Hasani, J., Chashmi, S. J. E., Firoozabadi, M. A., Noory, L., Turel, O., & Montag, C. (2023) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2023.108020 · Cited by 22
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Method
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Muela, I., Navas, J. F., Ventura-Lucena, J. M., & Perales, J. C. (2022) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2022.107410 · Cited by 28
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“[13] Factors include d Galletta and Polak [17] Factors include a”
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Demirer, V., & Bozoğlan, B. (2015) · Asia-Pacific Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/appy.12219 · Cited by 19
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Background
Personality and Problematic Internet Use Among Chinese College Students: The Mediating Role of Maladaptive Cognitions Over Internet Use
Zhou, N., Geng, X.-M., Du, H., Wu, L., Xu, J., Ma, S.-S., Zhang, J.-T., Yu, C.-F., Liang, Y., Meng, J., et al. (2018) · Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking · doi:10.1089/cyber.2018.0279 · Cited by 19
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“Some others focused on possible life-to-work conflict through cyber slacking or cyber loafing (Davis, Flett, & Besser, 2002; Garrett & Danziger, 2008; Lim, 2002; Vitak et al., 2011), or simply engaging in non-work activities during worktimes with the use of ICTs (Weatherbee, 2010).”
Background
Internet Addiction: A Growing Concern In India
Maheshwari, S., & Sharma, P. (2018) · Indian Journal of Psychiatric Nursing · doi:10.4103/2231-1505.262510 · Cited by 19
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“Developed by Davis, the online cognition scale (OCS) consists of 36 items that question the thoughts, attitudes, and beliefs about the internet [40].”
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Öztürk, E., & Özmen, S. K. (2011) · Educational Sciences Theory & Practice · Cited by 18
Psychometric properties of the Internet Addiction Test in a sample of Malaysian undergraduate students
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Validation d’une version courte en langue française pour adolescents de la Compulsive Internet Use Scale
Cartierre, N., Coulon, N., & Demerval, R. (2011) · Neuropsychiatrie de l Enfance et de l Adolescence · doi:10.1016/j.neurenf.2011.06.003 · Cited by 18
Trait procrastination and compulsive Internet use as predictors of cyberloafing
Yan, J., & Yang, J. (2014) · International Conference on Service Systems and Service Management · doi:10.1109/icsssm.2014.6874119 · Cited by 20
“Some researchers have proposed that there is a close relation between procrastination and cyberlofing [4, 14, 15], but there is not yet a conclusion and most research take procrastination only as a behavior-level concept.”
BackgroundInfluential
Understanding of computers and procrastination: A philosophical approach
Breems, N. S., & Basden, A. (2013) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2013.10.024 · Cited by 18
“The issue has been studied with emphasis on its role among university undergraduates (Frangos et al., 2011), in the office (Thatcher et al., 2008), among game players (Caplan et al., 2009), or for pre-employment screening (Davis et al., 2002).”
Influential
Exploring the Influence of Information Overload, Internet Addiction, and Social Network Addiction, on Students’ Well-Being and Academic Outcomes
AlHeneidi, H. H., & Smith, A. P. (2021) · Communications in computer and information science · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-91408-0_8 · Cited by 21
“Scientists have used different terms to measure internet addiction; "Pathological Internet Use" [29-31], "Problematic Internet Use" [32,33], "Maladaptive Internet Use" [33, 34], Internet Behavior Dependence" [35], "Internet Dependence" [36, 37], "Internet Over-use" [38], "Misuse of the Internet" [39], and "Internet-re…”
Background
Is there a gradient in the association between internet addiction and health?
Hossin, M. Z., Islam, A., Billah, M., Haque, M., & Uddin, J. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0264716 · Cited by 17
“From the relationship deficits perspective, IA is considered as an artifact resulting from a deficit in the real-world relationship or lacking adequate resources to build such relationship [4, 19, 20].”
Background
Similarities and differences in the psychological factors associated with generalised problematic internet use, problematic social media use, and problematic online gaming
Sánchez-Fernández, M., Mas, M. D. L. M. B., Horváth, Z., & Demetrovics, Z. (2024) · Comprehensive Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2024.152512 · Cited by 21
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Naffise, M., Mohammad, A., Ahmad, P. B., Omid, R., Ayatollahi, A. A., Reza, B., & Fatemeh, A. B. (2013) · ASEAN Journal of Psychiatry · Cited by 17
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“Figures 6 and 7 show that, except for the three nodes of Lavoie and Pychyl (2001), Davis et al. (2002) and Oravec (2002), the regional main path is exactly the same as the global main path, indicating that these 16 papers play key roles in the evolution of knowledge in this field.”
Background
Therapeutic Interventions in the Treatment of Problematic Internet Use—Experiences from Germany
Dau, W., Hoffmann, J. D. G., & Banger, M. (2015) · Studies in neuroscience, psychology and behavioral economics · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-07242-5_12 · Cited by 17
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“anxiety, depression, and low self-esteem) are also the most important risk factors for Internet addiction (Chou, 2001; Davis et al., 2002; Koronczai et al., 2013; Treuer et al., 2001).”
Background
Relationship between Symptoms of Disruptive Behavior Disorders and Unsafe Internet Usage in Early Adolescence
Vural, P., Uncu, Y., & Kılıç, E. Z. (2015) · Nöro Psikiyatri Arşivi · doi:10.5152/npa.2015.7346 · Cited by 18
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Group Counselling on College Students’ Internet Dependency and Life Satisfaction
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“…aim of the program administered to the study group was to enable the participants to recognise their problematic internet use behaviour, see the negative impacts of the internet on their lives, and use their The OCS was developed by Davis et al. (2002) in order to assess problematic internet use.”
Method
Online Addictions
Griffiths, M. D., & Kuss, D. J. (2015) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118426456.ch17 · Cited by 18
Mapping research on ICT addiction: a comprehensive review of Internet, smartphone, social media, and gaming addictions
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“The Online Cognition Scale (OCS), introduced by Davis et al. (2002), contains 36 items rated on a 7-point Likert scale from 1 (“absolutely disagree”) to 7 (“absolutely agree”).”
Problematic Internet usage, personality, loneliness, and psychological well‐being in emerging adulthood
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“Socio-demographic details were filled and subsequently, The Internet Addiction Test, Online Cognition Scales [OCS] and Depression Anxiety Stress Scale [DASS] were administered.”
Method
Problematic Internet Use: Clinical Aspects
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Computer playfulness, Internet dependency and their relationships with online activity types and student academic performance
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“Internet dependency was assessed by the ten-item Online Cognition Scale (Davis et al., 2002) as refined by Jia and Jia (2009).”
Method
The Association of Internet Addiction with Academic Achievement, Emotional Intelligence and Strategies to Prevention of them from Student’s Perspectives
Arbabisarjou, A., Gorgich, E. A. C., Barfroshan, S., & Ghoreishinia, G. (2016) · Cited by 16
The influence of information overload and problematic Internet use on adults wellbeing
AlHeneidi, H. H. (2019) · ORCA Online Research @Cardiff (Cardiff University) · Cited by 16
Mindfulness for Sustainable Internet Use in Chinese Junior Secondary School Students: A Dual-Path Mediation Model
Wu, J., & Li, H. (2021) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su13094626 · Cited by 17
A discriminant analysis model of psychosocial predictors of problematic Internet use and cannabis use disorder in university students
Akbari, M., Bahadori, M. H., Mohammadkhani, S., Kolubinski, D. C., Nikčević, A. V., & Spada, M. M. (2021) · Addictive Behaviors Reports · doi:10.1016/j.abrep.2021.100354 · Cited by 15
The effect of physical activities on internet addiction in college students: the mediating effect of self-control
Sun, Y., Wang, Y., Yu, H., Liu, J., & Feng, X. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1530740 · Cited by 17
“…and “items measure subjects’ cognition rather than behavior” make this scale have advantages that other internet addiction scales do not have (Davis et al., 2002); Scott and Caplan’s “Revised Generalized Problem Internet Usage Scale” includes ﬁve dimensions: online social performance,…”
Problematic Internet Use, Non-Medical Use of Prescription Drugs, and Depressive Symptoms among Adolescents: A Large-Scale Study in China
Fan, B., Wang, W., Wang, T., Xie, B., Zhang, H., Liao, Y., Lu, C., & Guo, L. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph17030774 · Cited by 14
“In another aspect, Davis’s cognitive–behavioral theory proposed that depressive symptoms may also predispose individuals to develop maladaptive Internet-related cognitions and behaviors that can lead to PIU [19,20].”
Background
The Relationship Between Fear of Missing Out (FoMO) Levels and Cyberloafing Behaviour of Teachers
Güllü, B. F., & Serin, H. (2020) · Journal of Education and Learning · doi:10.5539/jel.v9n5p205 · Cited by 14
Consequences Of Cyberloafing –A Literature Review
Professor, N. B., & Anand, S. (2020) · European Journal of Molecular & Clinical Medicine · Cited by 14
Mind the gap: Internet pornography exposure, influence and problematic viewing amongst emerging adults
Bernstein, S., Warburton, W., Bussey, K., & Sweller, N. (2023) · Sexuality Research and Social Policy · doi:10.1007/s13178-022-00698-8 · Cited by 14
“The compelling attributes of IP may be particularly captivating for those who already struggle to control their impulses, with a number of studies identifying impulse control problems in conjunction with problematic Internet use (Brand et al., 2016; Davis et al., 2002; Yellowlees & Marks, 2007).”
Background
A Review of Research on Problematic Internet Use and Well-Being: With Recommendations for the U.S. Air Force
Breslau, J. A., Aharoni, E., Pedersen, E. R., & Miller, L. L. (2015) · Rand health quarterly · doi:10.7249/rhq-05-01-20 · Cited by 21
“, Young, 1998) • the role of Internet use in distraction from daily life (e.g., “When I am online I don’t think about my responsibilities,” Davis et al., 2002).”
Üniversite öğrencilerinde internet bağımlılığı ve saldırganlık
Şahin, M. (2013) · Dusunen Adam The Journal of Psychiatry and Neurological Sciences · doi:10.5350/dajpn2014270106 · Cited by 14
Study of pathological Internet use, behavior and attitudes among students population at Technical Faculty Bor, University of Belgrade
Niculović, M., Živković, D. T., Manasijevic, D. M., & Štrbac, N. D. (2014) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2014.06.020 · Cited by 14
Prediction of Problematic Internet Usage of University Students by Their Attachment Styles
Aktürk, A. O. (2020) · International Journal of Education in Mathematics Science and Technology · doi:10.46328/ijemst.v8i4.1170 · Cited by 15
Problematic Internet Use and Psychosocial Well-being: Role of Mindfulness Mediated by Self-Control and Negative Affect
Sinha, N. K., Kumar, P., Kumar, S., & Priyadarshi, P. (2021) · IIM Kozhikode Society & Management Review · doi:10.1177/2277975220965346 · Cited by 13
“Notably, depression and loneliness have been identified as the indicators of psychosocial well-being by several researchers in previous studies (e.g., Caplan, 2002; Davis et al., 2002; van den Eijnden et al., 2008).”
Investigating Digital Distraction among Pre-service Science, Technology, and Mathematics Teachers in Nigeria
Awofala, A. O. A., Olabiyi, O. S., Okunuga, R. O., Ojo, O. T., Awofala, A. A., & Lawani, A. O. (2020) · Digital Education Review · doi:10.1344/der.2020.37.32-48 · Cited by 13
“Greenfield (2017) conceptualized digital distraction as a 12-item test involving yes or no while Davis et al (2002) measured distraction as part of the online cognition scale using a survey involving seven items on a seven-point Likert scale.”
MethodInfluential
How to Procrastinate Productively With ADHD: A Study of Smartphone Use, Depression, and Other Academic Variables Among University Students With ADHD Symptoms
Müller, V., Mellor, D. J., & Piko, B. F. (2023) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/10870547231171724 · Cited by 17
“, 2020), or avoidance during cognitively stressful work (Davis et al., 2002).”
Background
The development and validation of the Indian social media addiction scale
Saqib, N., & Amin, F. (2023) · Online Information Review · doi:10.1108/oir-09-2021-0477 · Cited by 15
Are self-regulation and depressive symptoms predictors of problematic Internet use among first year university students?
Šebeňa, R., Orosová, O., & Benka, J. (2013) · Psychnology · Cited by 13
Prokrastynacja i prokrastynatorzy. Definicja, etiologia, epidemiologia i terapia
Markiewicz, K. (2019) · Annales Universitatis Mariae Curie-Skłodowska sectio J – Paedagogia-Psychologia · doi:10.17951/j.2018.31.3.195-213 · Cited by 14
Association Between Psychological Well-Being and Problematic Internet Use Among University Students of Bangladesh
Akhter, M. S., & Khalek, M. A. (2020) · Journal of Technology in Behavioral Science · doi:10.1007/s41347-020-00142-x · Cited by 15
Problematic internet use and safety behavior: The moderating role of safety climate
Ghasemi, F., Aghaei, H., & Nikravesh, A. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0279767 · Cited by 13
“[58] developed a preemployment tool for singling out people who are prone to abuse the internet in the workplaces.”
Method
A Study on the Effects of Loneliness, Depression and Perceived Social Support on Problematic Internet Use among University Students
Özşaker, M., Muslu, G. K., Kahraman, A., Beytut, D., Yardımcı, F., & Başbakkal, Z. (2015) · The Anthropologist · doi:10.1080/09720073.2015.11891688 · Cited by 14
“…the correlation between PIU and depression (Shapira et al. 2000), loneliness (Serin 2011; Caplan 2007; Ceyhan and Ceyhan 2008; Davis 2001; Davis et al. 2002; DurakBatigun and Hasta 2010; Gross et al. 2002; Hardie and Yi-Tee 2007; Kim et al. 2009; MorahanMartin and Schumacher 2003; Odaci…”
BackgroundInfluential
Internet addiction, academic performance and personality traits: a correlational study among female university students
Kakaraki, S., Tselios, N. K., & Katsanos, C. (2017) · International Journal of Learning Technology · doi:10.1504/ijlt.2017.086382 · Cited by 13
“Furthermore, instead of using only the Internet Addiction Test (Young, 1998), the Online Cognition Scale (Davis et al., 2002) is also adopted, in order to further”
BackgroundMethod
Nurses’ Cyberloafing and Its Relationship to Procrastination and Conscientiousness in Damanhour National Medical Institute
Eldin, Y. K. Z. (2019) · American Journal of Nursing Science · doi:10.11648/j.ajns.20190802.13 · Cited by 14
“As the Internet is often described as entertaining and interesting, it is assumed a good distracter to enable procrastination [31].”
Background
Examining personality factors and character defenses assists in the differentiation between college students with Internet addiction and unaffected controls
Floros, G. D., Siomos, K. E., Antoniadis, D., Bozikas, V., Hyphantis, T. N., & Garyfallos, G. (2015) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2015.05.030 · Cited by 13
Internet Addiction Among University Students in Kuwait
Hamade, S. N. (2009) · Digest of Middle East Studies · doi:10.1111/j.1949-3606.2009.tb01101.x · Cited by 15
Factor Structure of the Internet Addiction Scale and Its Associations with Psychiatric Symptoms for Korean Adolescents
Sung, M., Shin, Y.-M., & Cho, S.-M. (2013) · Community Mental Health Journal · doi:10.1007/s10597-013-9689-0 · Cited by 13
“The instruments of measuring the degree to which people use internet have been studied by a number of researchers (Young 1998b; Lin and Tsai 2002; MorahanMartin and Schumacher 2000; Caplan 2002; Bernner 1997; Davis et al. 2002).”
Background
Modeling Factors Associated With Academic Procrastination in University Students
Özbay, Ö., Doğan, U., Adıgüzel, O., & Özbay, S. Ç. (2025) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.1177/00332941251335573 · Cited by 18
Problemli İnternet Kullanımı Olan Ergenlerin İnternet Kullanımına İlişkin Duygu ve Görüşlerinin İncelenmesi
Öztabak, M. Ü. (2018) · Opus uluslararası toplum araştırmaları dergisi · doi:10.26466/opus.419667 · Cited by 12

Authors: Davis, R. A., Flett, G. L., & Besser, A.
Affiliations: York University (CA)
Department of Psychology, York University, Toronto, Canada.
ORCID: Davis, Richard A.
Flett, Gordon L.
Venue: CyberPsychology & Behavior
Publisher: SAGE Publications
Published: 2002-08
Volume: 5
Issue: 4
Pages: 331-345
ISSN: 1094-9313 (ISSN-L)
1557-8364
DOI: 10.1089/109493102760275581
OpenAlex: W2086020439
Cited by: 750
References: 56
Citations by year: 2026: 9 · 2025: 19 · 2024: 32 · 2023: 34 · 2022: 59 · 2021: 47 · 2020: 50 · 2019: 39 · 2018: 36 · 2017: 37 · 2016: 45 · 2015: 51 · 2014: 49 · 2013: 41 · 2012: 50
FWCI: 18.15
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: www.liebertpub.com/nv/resources-tools/text-and-data-mining-policy/121/ (tdm)
Locations: CyberPsychology & Behavior (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Impact of Technology on Adolescents
Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Organizational Behavior and Human Resource Management › Cyberloafing and Workplace Behavior
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Sexuality, Behavior, and Technology
Keywords: problematic internet use, internet addiction, pre-employment screening, cyberloafing, procrastination, impulsivity, rejection sensitivity, loneliness, depression, distraction, online chat, scale validation, workplace internet use
MeSH terms: Adult, Cognition, Decision Making, Organizational, Employment, Factor Analysis, Statistical, Female, Humans, Impulsive Behavior, Male, Personnel Selection, Surveys and Questionnaires, Reproducibility of Results, Behavior, Addictive, Internet

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Validation of a New Scale for Measuring Problematic Internet Use: Implications for Pre-employment Screening

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