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Changes in brain activity related to eating chocolate: From pleasure to aversion
Abstract
We performed successive H(2)(15)O-PET scans on volunteers as they ate chocolate to beyond satiety. Thus, the sensory stimulus and act (eating) were held constant while the reward value of the chocolate and motivation of the subject to eat were manipulated by feeding. Non-specific effects of satiety (such as feelings of fullness and autonomic changes) were also present and probably contributed to the modulation of brain activity. After eating each piece of chocolate, subjects gave ratings of how pleasant/unpleasant the chocolate was and of how much they did or did not want another piece of chocolate. Regional cerebral blood flow was then regressed against subjects' ratings. Different groups of structures were recruited selectively depending on whether subjects were eating chocolate when they were highly motivated to eat and rated the chocolate as very pleasant [subcallosal region, caudomedial orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), insula/operculum, striatum and midbrain] or whether they ate chocolate despite being satiated (parahippocampal gyrus, caudolateral OFC and prefrontal regions). As predicted, modulation was observed in cortical chemosensory areas, including the insula and caudomedial and caudolateral OFC, suggesting that the reward value of food is represented here. Of particular interest, the medial and lateral caudal OFC showed opposite patterns of activity. This pattern of activity indicates that there may be a functional segregation of the neural representation of reward and punishment within this region. The only brain region that was active during both positive and negative compared with neutral conditions was the posterior cingulate cortex. Therefore, these results support the hypothesis that there are two separate motivational systems: one orchestrating approach and another avoidance behaviours.
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“Similarly, ventral striatal activity is initially high in response to palatable food but diminishes as individuals consume beyond satiety225.”
From Neural mechanisms of social homeostasis (2019) · cites this paper as [225]
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Neuroimaging the interaction of mind and metabolism in humans
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“However, with continued chocolate consumption, prefrontal circuits became active with responses correlating with decreasing pleasure that resulted from eating the chocolate to beyond satiety [4] (Fig.”
BackgroundSelf-citationAdding Cocoa to Sucrose: The Effect on Cold Pain Tolerance
Eggleston, K. M., White, T. L., & Sheehe, P. R. (2010) · Chemical Senses · doi:10.1093/chemse/bjq016 · Cited by 10
“Knowing that cocoa is strongly associated with sweet taste (Small et al. 2001) but is in its pure form bitter (cocoa powder alone, rather than commercially available chocolate that contains high levels of sugar and fat), the present study asked how the addition of cocoa to a sweet sucrose solution would affect pain to…”
BackgroundVisual food stimulus changes resting oscillatory brain activities related to appetitive motive
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“In particular, the OFC is one of major components of reward circuitry related to overeating palatable food and development of obesity [11, 40, 41].”
Mesolimbic white matter connectivity mediates the preference for sweet food
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“Further, prior work has shown that the subgenual ACC is activated during palatable food tastes and correlates positively with taste pleasantness ratings [47].”
BackgroundStepwise pathways from the olfactory cortex to central hub regions in the human brain
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“The AON/OT anterior pathway was characterized by an earlier and stronger involvement of the OFC relative to the PirT/PirF posterior pathway; the OFC is involved in olfactory valence and reward signals, as well as multisensory integration (Olofsson et al., 2014; Small et al., 2001).”
Neuroadaptive processes associated with palatable food intake: present data and future directions
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“that could help protect the neural tissues [9,38,39] and could improve stress-induced oxidative brain disorders [40].”
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“For example, Small et al.[54] showed that the continuous ingestion of pieces of chocolate, stimulating both the olfactory and gustatory systems, led to a reduction of the general hedonic rating of the consumed chocolate.”
BackgroundGlucagon-Like Peptide-1 Receptors in the Gustatory Cortex Influence Food Intake
Dossat, A. M., Kokoska, M. M., Whitaker‐Fornek, J. R., Sniffen, S. E., Kulkarni, A. S., Levitt, E. S., & Wesson, D. W. (2023) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.1668-22.2023 · Cited by 9
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Brain Responses to Food Odors Associated With BMI Change at 2-Year Follow-Up
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Metadata
- Authors
- Small, D. M.
- Affiliations
- Northwestern University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Small, D. M.
- ORCID
- Small, D. M.
- Venue
- Brain
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2001-09-01
- Volume
- 124
- Issue
- 9
- Pages
- 1720-1733
- ISSN
- 0006-8950 (ISSN-L)
- 1460-2156
- OpenAlex
- W2243948722
- Cited by
- 1,179
- References
- 91
- Citations by year
- 2026: 14 · 2025: 30 · 2024: 19 · 2023: 39 · 2022: 22 · 2021: 37 · 2020: 71 · 2019: 40 · 2018: 40 · 2017: 54 · 2016: 56 · 2015: 52 · 2014: 55 · 2013: 55 · 2012: 77
- FWCI
- 10.96
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Brain (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neurotransmitter Receptor Influence on Behavior
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Regulation of Appetite and Obesity
- Keywords
- chocolate consumption, food reward, satiety, food aversion, insula, striatum, midbrain, parahippocampal gyrus, posterior cingulate cortex, approach-avoidance motivation, regional cerebral blood flow, chemosensory processing
- MeSH terms
- Avoidance Learning, Brain, Cacao, Cerebrovascular Circulation, Feeding Behavior, Female, Humans, Male, Reward, Satiety Response, Taste, Tomography, Emission-Computed
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