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Changes in brain activity related to eating chocolate: From pleasure to aversion
Abstract
We performed successive H(2)(15)O-PET scans on volunteers as they ate chocolate to beyond satiety. Thus, the sensory stimulus and act (eating) were held constant while the reward value of the chocolate and motivation of the subject to eat were manipulated by feeding. Non-specific effects of satiety (such as feelings of fullness and autonomic changes) were also present and probably contributed to the modulation of brain activity. After eating each piece of chocolate, subjects gave ratings of how pleasant/unpleasant the chocolate was and of how much they did or did not want another piece of chocolate. Regional cerebral blood flow was then regressed against subjects' ratings. Different groups of structures were recruited selectively depending on whether subjects were eating chocolate when they were highly motivated to eat and rated the chocolate as very pleasant [subcallosal region, caudomedial orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), insula/operculum, striatum and midbrain] or whether they ate chocolate despite being satiated (parahippocampal gyrus, caudolateral OFC and prefrontal regions). As predicted, modulation was observed in cortical chemosensory areas, including the insula and caudomedial and caudolateral OFC, suggesting that the reward value of food is represented here. Of particular interest, the medial and lateral caudal OFC showed opposite patterns of activity. This pattern of activity indicates that there may be a functional segregation of the neural representation of reward and punishment within this region. The only brain region that was active during both positive and negative compared with neutral conditions was the posterior cingulate cortex. Therefore, these results support the hypothesis that there are two separate motivational systems: one orchestrating approach and another avoidance behaviours.
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“Similarly, ventral striatal activity is initially high in response to palatable food but diminishes as individuals consume beyond satiety225.”
From Neural mechanisms of social homeostasis (2019) · cites this paper as [225]
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ResultBody mass variability is represented by distinct functional connectivity patterns
Sadler, J. R., Shearrer, G. E., & Burger, K. S. (2018) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2018.06.082 · Cited by 22
“…between the two samples, both are in line with previous investigations that indicate elevated BMI is associated with aberrant gustatory and visual processing (Small et al., 2001; Stice et al., 2008; Stoeckel et al., 2008) and with increased connectivity within the DMN (Tregellas et al., 2011).”
Smith, D. V., & Delgado, M. R. (2015) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-397025-1.00255-4 · Cited by 25
Rodríguez‐Ruiz, S., Ruiz‐Padial, E., Vera, N., Fernández‐Santaella, M. C., Anllo‐Vento, L., & Vila, J. (2009) · Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1027/0269-8803.23.3.95 · Cited by 22
Carbohydrate mouth rinse: does it improve endurance exercise performance?
Painelli, V. D. S., Nicastro, H., & Lancha, A. H. (2010) · Nutrition Journal · doi:10.1186/1475-2891-9-33 · Cited by 26
Multisensory flavour perception
Spence, C. J. (2016) · Flavour · doi:10.1002/9781118929384.ch16 · Cited by 22
Neural correlates of affective influence on choice
Piech, R. M., Lewis, J., Parkinson, C. H., Owen, A. M., Roberts, A., Downing, P. E., & Parkinson, J. A. (2009) · Brain and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2009.09.012 · Cited by 23
“Several studies have shown that altering the motivational state of participants by changing their hunger level has an impact on decision making and neural responses associated with relevant stimuli (Hinton et al., 2004; Killgore & Yurgelun-Todd, 2006; Kringelbach, O’Doherty, Rolls, & Andrews, 2003; Small et al., 2001).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialHunt, K. F., Dunn, J., le Roux, C. W., Reed, L. J., Marsden, P. K., Patel, A. G., & Amiel, S. A. (2016) · Diabetes Care · doi:10.2337/dc15-2721 · Cited by 21
From the Reward Circuit to the Valuation System: How the Brain Motivates Behavior
Pessiglione, M., & Lebreton, M. P. (2014) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-1236-0_11 · Cited by 23
García, R., Simón, M. J., & Puerto, A. (2013) · Experimental Brain Research · doi:10.1007/s00221-013-3422-7 · Cited by 21
“…and the need for tobacco (Naqvi et al. 2007), and conversely, IC activation has been observed during craving periods in subjects addicted to drugs of abuse (Wang et al. 1999; Sell et al. 2000; Bonson et al. 2002) and even during food craving episodes (Small et al. 2001; Pelchat et al. 2004).”
BackgroundDistinguishing expected negative outcomes from preparatory control in the human orbitofrontal cortex
Ursu, S., Clark, K. A., Stenger, V. A., & Carter, C. S. (2008) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2008.06.033 · Cited by 21
“…the presence of such a dichotomy within the OFC at the stage of response/feedback of task performance (O'Doherty et al., 2001; Remijnse et al., ; Small et al., 2001) or in conditions of anticipation of negatively valenced stimuli which did not explicitly preclude engagement of preparatory…”
BackgroundResultStone, M. E., Maffei, A., & Fontanini, A. (2011) · Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnint.2011.00003 · Cited by 20
Food-Related Odors and the Reward Circuit: Functional MRI
Frasnelli, J., Hummel, C., Bojanowski, V., Warr, J., Gerber, J. C., & Hummel, T. R. (2015) · Chemosensory Perception · doi:10.1007/s12078-015-9193-8 · Cited by 24
“Cingulate activation was independent from reward associated with chocolate consumption (Small et al. 2001).”
BackgroundYonezawa, H., Otagaki, Y., Miyake, Y., Okamoto, Y., & Yamawaki, S. (2008) · Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences · doi:10.1111/j.1440-1819.2007.01769.x · Cited by 20
EL CHOCOLATE, UN PLACER SALUDABLE
Alfonso Valenzuela, B. (2007) · Revista chilena de nutrición · doi:10.4067/s0717-75182007000300001 · Cited by 20
How task demands shape brain responses to visual food cues
Pohl, T. M., Tempelmann, C., & Noesselt, T. (2017) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.23560 · Cited by 20
“Some of the subregions of the insula have been implicated in interoception and multimodal aspects of food perception [Frank et al., 2013], the desire for [Pelchat et al., 2004] and the reward value of food [Small et al., 2001].”
BackgroundCORRELATIONS AMONG BEHAVIORAL MEASURES OF ORBITOFRONTAL FUNCTION
Spinella, M. (2002) · International Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/00207450290158250 · Cited by 20
“The pleasurable taste of chocolate activated the caudomedial region of orbitofrontal cortex, whose activity changes to reflect a decline in pleasantness after repeated eating and satiety (Small et al., 2001).”
BackgroundThe relationship of autistic traits to taste and olfactory processing in anorexia nervosa
Kinnaird, E., Stewart, C. S., & Tchanturia, K. (2020) · Molecular Autism · doi:10.1186/s13229-020-00331-8 · Cited by 19
“As well as responding to the taste and olfactory qualities of food, the anterior insula also appears to be involved in reward and affective assessments [26, 27].”
BackgroundJonker, N. C., Bennik, E. C., de Lang, T. A., & de Jong, P. J. (2020) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2020.104686 · Cited by 19
Rodgers, R. F., Stritzke, W. G. K., Bui, É., Franko, D. L., & Chabrol, H. (2011) · Eating Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2011.07.002 · Cited by 18
Exposing orgasm in the brain: a critical eye
Georgiadis, J. R. (2011) · Sexual & Relationship Therapy · doi:10.1080/14681994.2011.647904 · Cited by 18
“For instance, the lateral OFC activated when subjects ate beyond satiety (Small et al., 2001).”
BackgroundPerceptual and Neural Plasticity of Odor Quality Coding in the Human Brain
Gottfried, J. A. (2008) · Chemosensory Perception · doi:10.1007/s12078-008-9017-1 · Cited by 18
“Responses in human OFC decrease as chocolate (a complex food stimulus with prominent olfactory components) is consumed to satiety (Small et al. 2001) and also occur when subjects drink a flavorful food liquid (either tomato juice or chocolate milk) until they are sated (Kringelbach et al. 2003).”
BackgroundApaolaza-Ibantilde, V., ez, Mark, Z., er, & Hartmann, P. (2010) · AFRICAN JOURNAL OF BUSINESS MANAGEMENT · doi:10.5897/ajbm.9000405 · Cited by 17
Toward a neurobiology of musical emotions
Peretz, I., Aubé, W., & Armony, J. L. (2013) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199583560.003.0017 · Cited by 19
Metadata
- Authors
- Small, D. M.
- Affiliations
- Northwestern University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Small, D. M.
- ORCID
- Small, D. M.
- Venue
- Brain
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2001-09-01
- Volume
- 124
- Issue
- 9
- Pages
- 1720-1733
- ISSN
- 0006-8950 (ISSN-L)
- 1460-2156
- OpenAlex
- W2243948722
- Cited by
- 1,179
- References
- 91
- Citations by year
- 2026: 14 · 2025: 30 · 2024: 19 · 2023: 39 · 2022: 22 · 2021: 37 · 2020: 71 · 2019: 40 · 2018: 40 · 2017: 54 · 2016: 56 · 2015: 52 · 2014: 55 · 2013: 55 · 2012: 77
- FWCI
- 10.96
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Brain (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neurotransmitter Receptor Influence on Behavior
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Regulation of Appetite and Obesity
- Keywords
- chocolate consumption, food reward, satiety, food aversion, insula, striatum, midbrain, parahippocampal gyrus, posterior cingulate cortex, approach-avoidance motivation, regional cerebral blood flow, chemosensory processing
- MeSH terms
- Avoidance Learning, Brain, Cacao, Cerebrovascular Circulation, Feeding Behavior, Female, Humans, Male, Reward, Satiety Response, Taste, Tomography, Emission-Computed
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