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Changes in brain activity related to eating chocolate: From pleasure to aversion
Abstract
We performed successive H(2)(15)O-PET scans on volunteers as they ate chocolate to beyond satiety. Thus, the sensory stimulus and act (eating) were held constant while the reward value of the chocolate and motivation of the subject to eat were manipulated by feeding. Non-specific effects of satiety (such as feelings of fullness and autonomic changes) were also present and probably contributed to the modulation of brain activity. After eating each piece of chocolate, subjects gave ratings of how pleasant/unpleasant the chocolate was and of how much they did or did not want another piece of chocolate. Regional cerebral blood flow was then regressed against subjects' ratings. Different groups of structures were recruited selectively depending on whether subjects were eating chocolate when they were highly motivated to eat and rated the chocolate as very pleasant [subcallosal region, caudomedial orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), insula/operculum, striatum and midbrain] or whether they ate chocolate despite being satiated (parahippocampal gyrus, caudolateral OFC and prefrontal regions). As predicted, modulation was observed in cortical chemosensory areas, including the insula and caudomedial and caudolateral OFC, suggesting that the reward value of food is represented here. Of particular interest, the medial and lateral caudal OFC showed opposite patterns of activity. This pattern of activity indicates that there may be a functional segregation of the neural representation of reward and punishment within this region. The only brain region that was active during both positive and negative compared with neutral conditions was the posterior cingulate cortex. Therefore, these results support the hypothesis that there are two separate motivational systems: one orchestrating approach and another avoidance behaviours.
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“Similarly, ventral striatal activity is initially high in response to palatable food but diminishes as individuals consume beyond satiety225.”
From Neural mechanisms of social homeostasis (2019) · cites this paper as [225]
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Processing emotional pictures and words: Effects of valence and arousal
KENSINGER, E. A., & SCHACTER, D. L. (2006) · Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3758/cabn.6.2.110 · Cited by 442
“The results were generally consistent with those in prior studies demonstrating that lateral PFC regions respond to aversive stimuli, whereas medial PFC regions respond to positive stimuli (e.g., O’Doherty et al., 2001; Small et al., 2001).”
ResultHedonic Hot Spots in the Brain
Peciña, S., Smith, K. S., & Berridge, K. C. (2006) · The Neuroscientist · doi:10.1177/1073858406293154 · Cited by 441
A functional MRI study of happy and sad affective states induced by classical music
Mitterschiffthaler, M. T., Fu, C. H. Y., Dalton, J. A., Andrew, C. M., & Williams, S. (2007) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.20337 · Cited by 473
“…structures has also been observed during mating/copulation in rodents [Pfaus et al., 1995], in humans in association with stimulants such as food [Small et al., 2001], recreational drugs [Breiter et al., 1997] and while viewing pleasant pictures or facial images [Aharon et al., 2001; Lane et…”
BackgroundVal‐Laillet, D., Aarts, E., Weber, B., Ferrari, M., Quaresima, V., Stoeckel, L. E., Alonso‐Alonso, M., Audette, M. A., Malbert, C., & Stice, E. M. (2015) · NeuroImage Clinical · doi:10.1016/j.nicl.2015.03.016 · Cited by 466
“…implicated in reward in both humans and other animals, including the ventral and dorsal striatum, midbrain, amygdala, and orbitofrontal cortex (OFC: Small et al., 2001; Avena et al., 2006; Berridge, 2009; Stice et al., 2013) and causes dopamine (DA) release in the dorsal striatum, with the amount…”
The effect of carbohydrate mouth rinse on 1-h cycle time trial performance
CARTER, J. M., JEUKENDRUP, A. E., & JONES, D. A. (2004) · Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise · doi:10.1249/01.mss.0000147585.65709.6f · Cited by 437
Opponent appetitive-aversive neural processes underlie predictive learning of pain relief
Seymour, B., O'Doherty, J. P., Koltzenburg, M., Wiech, K., Frackowiak, R., Friston, K., & Dolan, R. (2005) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nn1527 · Cited by 439
GLP-1 Receptor Activation Modulates Appetite- and Reward-Related Brain Areas in Humans
van Bloemendaal, L., IJzerman, R. G., ten Kulve, J. S., Barkhof, F., Konrad, R. J., Drent, M. L., Veltman, D. J., & Diamant, M. (2014) · Diabetes · doi:10.2337/db14-0849 · Cited by 427
“The insula is involved in the processing of food-cues and craving for food (31) and has been implicated in the devaluation of food-cues when eating to satiety (32).”
BackgroundInfluentialLimbic systems for emotion and for memory, but no single limbic system
Rolls, E. T. (2013) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2013.12.005 · Cited by 456
Capriles, N., Rodaros, D., Sorge, R. E., & Stewart, J. (2002) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-002-1283-z · Cited by 414
“The OFC, however, is known to be involved in the appetitive and aversive motivational control of goal-directed behavior (O’Doherty et al. 2001; Small et al. 2001 ), modulating decisions about expected outcomes (Bechara et al. 2000; Hollerman et al. 2000).”
BackgroundHooper, C. J., Luciana, M., Conklin, H. M., & Yarger, R. S. (2004) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.40.6.1148 · Cited by 412
Neural representations of subjective reward value
Peters, J., & Büchel, C. (2010) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2010.04.031 · Cited by 405
Rudebeck, P. H., & Murray, E. A. (2014) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2014.10.049 · Cited by 405
Weight Gain Is Associated with Reduced Striatal Response to Palatable Food
Stice, E., Yokum, S., Blum, K., & Bohon, C. (2010) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.2105-10.2010 · Cited by 401
“The dorsal striatum responds to ingestion of chocolate in lean humans and is sensitive to its devaluation by feeding beyond satiety (Small et al., 2001).”
The human sexual response cycle: Brain imaging evidence linking sex to other pleasures
Georgiadis, J. R., & Kringelbach, M. L. (2012) · Progress in Neurobiology · doi:10.1016/j.pneurobio.2012.05.004 · Cited by 422
“…mid-anterior subregion of the OFC is interesting, since previous research has shown that activity correlates with the subjective pleasure of different rewards, e.g. food (Kringelbach et al., 2003), drugs (Vollm et al., 2004), chocolate (Small et al., 2001), and even music (Blood and Zatorre, 2001).”
BackgroundInfluentialExperience-dependent neural integration of taste and smell in the human brain
Small, D. M., Voss, J., Mak, Y. E., Simmons, K. B., Parrish, T., & Gitelman, D. (2004) · Journal of Neurophysiology · doi:10.1152/jn.00050.2004 · Cited by 398
Self-citationOlfactory disorders and their consequences for quality of life
Hummel, T. R., & Nordin, S. (2004) · Acta Oto-Laryngologica · doi:10.1080/00016480410022787 · Cited by 423
“Examples of the ability of olfaction to generate strong associations include food aversions and nausea induced by an odor [22,23].”
BackgroundYokum, S., Ng, J., & Stice, E. M. (2011) · Obesity · doi:10.1038/oby.2011.168 · Cited by 396
Contextual modulation of amygdala responsivity to surprised faces
Kim, H., Somerville, L. H., Johnstone, T., Polis, S., Alexander, A. L., Shin, L. M., & Whalen, P. J. (2004) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/0898929042947865 · Cited by 389
Modulation of aesthetic value by semantic context: An fMRI study
Kirk, U., Skov, M., Hulme, O., Christensen, M. S., & Zeki, S. (2009) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2008.10.009 · Cited by 381
“…suggests that this region represents attributed hedonic values from a variety of sensory modalities, including gustatory (O'Doherty et al., 2001a; Small et al., 2001, 2003), olfactory (Anderson et al., 2003; Gottfried et al., 2002; Rolls et al., 2003a), somatosensory (Rolls et al., 2003b),…”
Siep, N., Roefs, A., Roebroeck, A., Havermans, R., Bonte, M. L., & Jansen, A. (2009) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2008.10.035 · Cited by 375
The nature of music from a biological perspective
Peretz, I. (2006) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2005.11.004 · Cited by 421
Common cellular and molecular mechanisms in obesity and drug addiction
Kenny, P. J. (2011) · Nature Reviews Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nrn3105 · Cited by 382
Page, K. A., Chan, O., Arora, J., Belfort-DeAguiar, R., Dzuira, J., Roehmholdt, B., Cline, G. W., Naik, S., Sinha, R., Constable, R. T., et al. (2013) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.2012.116975 · Cited by 379
“tivation occur when initially hungry individuals reach satiety.(23,26) Of note, fructose ingestion reduced CBF in the hippocampus.”
BackgroundNaturalizing aesthetics: Brain areas for aesthetic appraisal across sensory modalities
Brown, S., Gao, X., Tisdelle, L., Eickhoff, S. B., & Liotti, M. (2011) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.06.012 · Cited by 376
“For example, Small et al. (2001) had subjects eat chocolate to beyond satiety.”
Liking vs. wanting food: Importance for human appetite control and weight regulation
Finlayson, G., King, N. A., & Blundell, J. E. (2007) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2007.03.004 · Cited by 376
“One neuroimaging study (Small et al. 2001) used consecutive PET scans to track changes in brain activity as subjects consumed chocolate to beyond satiety.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialOrbitofrontal cortex tracks positive mood in mothers viewing pictures of their newborn infants
Nitschke, J. B., Nelson, E. E., Rusch, B. D., Fox, A. S., Oakes, T. R., & Davidson, R. J. (2004) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2003.10.005 · Cited by 371
“…with humans have activated different sectors of the OFC using taste (Berns et al., 2001; McClure et al., 2003; O'Doherty et al., 2001b, 2002, 2003a; Small et al., 2001), smell (Anderson et al., 2003; O'Doherty et al., 2000), money (Breiter et al., 2001; Elliott et al., 2000, 2003; Knutson et al.,…”
Metadata
- Authors
- Small, D. M.
- Affiliations
- Northwestern University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Small, D. M.
- ORCID
- Small, D. M.
- Venue
- Brain
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2001-09-01
- Volume
- 124
- Issue
- 9
- Pages
- 1720-1733
- ISSN
- 0006-8950 (ISSN-L)
- 1460-2156
- OpenAlex
- W2243948722
- Cited by
- 1,179
- References
- 91
- Citations by year
- 2026: 14 · 2025: 30 · 2024: 19 · 2023: 39 · 2022: 22 · 2021: 37 · 2020: 71 · 2019: 40 · 2018: 40 · 2017: 54 · 2016: 56 · 2015: 52 · 2014: 55 · 2013: 55 · 2012: 77
- FWCI
- 10.96
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Brain (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neurotransmitter Receptor Influence on Behavior
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Regulation of Appetite and Obesity
- Keywords
- chocolate consumption, food reward, satiety, food aversion, insula, striatum, midbrain, parahippocampal gyrus, posterior cingulate cortex, approach-avoidance motivation, regional cerebral blood flow, chemosensory processing
- MeSH terms
- Avoidance Learning, Brain, Cacao, Cerebrovascular Circulation, Feeding Behavior, Female, Humans, Male, Reward, Satiety Response, Taste, Tomography, Emission-Computed
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