Effectiveness of transcranial direct current stimulation and visual illusion on neuropathic pain in spinal cord injury
Open accessAbstract
The aim of this study was to evaluate the analgesic effect of transcranial direct current stimulation of the motor cortex and techniques of visual illusion, applied isolated or combined, in patients with neuropathic pain following spinal cord injury. In a sham controlled, double-blind, parallel group design, 39 patients were randomized into four groups receiving transcranial direct current stimulation with walking visual illusion or with control illusion and sham stimulation with visual illusion or with control illusion. For transcranial direct current stimulation, the anode was placed over the primary motor cortex. Each patient received ten treatment sessions during two consecutive weeks. Clinical assessment was performed before, after the last day of treatment, after 2 and 4 weeks follow-up and after 12 weeks. Clinical assessment included overall pain intensity perception, Neuropathic Pain Symptom Inventory and Brief Pain Inventory. The combination of transcranial direct current stimulation and visual illusion reduced the intensity of neuropathic pain significantly more than any of the single interventions. Patients receiving transcranial direct current stimulation and visual illusion experienced a significant improvement in all pain subtypes, while patients in the transcranial direct current stimulation group showed improvement in continuous and paroxysmal pain, and those in the visual illusion group improved only in continuous pain and dysaesthesias. At 12 weeks after treatment, the combined treatment group still presented significant improvement on the overall pain intensity perception, whereas no improvements were reported in the other three groups. Our results demonstrate that transcranial direct current stimulation and visual illusion can be effective in the management of neuropathic pain following spinal cord injury, with minimal side effects and with good tolerability.
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The different studies regarding VW did not discuss therapy adherence.
“The different studies regarding VW did not discuss therapy adherence [7, 15–20].”
From Virtual walking therapy in neuropathic spinal cord injury pain: a feasibility study (2024) · cites this paper as [15]
The Patient characteristics section discusses treatment participation: one patient in the visual-illusion group stopped after the second session because of increased pain and transportation difficulties. It also reports two later study dropouts. Thus, this paper does discuss completion of therapy, contrary to the claim. (LLM, conf=0.87)
Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn some studies, a mirror was used with a video projection of walking legs; in others, walking stimuli consisted of a video of an actor in first-person view walking along a path; and in another, participants viewed their virtual arms and legs in first person view in a virtual world through a head-mounted display.
“In some studies, a mirror was used with a video projection of walking legs [7, 15–17], in others the walking stimuli consisted of a video of an actor, in first-person view, walking along a path [18, 19] and in the last one participants viewed their virtual arms and legs in first person view in a virtual world through a head-mounted display [20].”
From Virtual walking therapy in neuropathic spinal cord injury pain: a feasibility study (2024) · cites this paper as [15]
Split into 3 atoms — 1 confirmed, 0 partially supported, 2 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThird-person perspective has already been described, while first-person perspective was also applied.
“Third-person perspective has already been described [7], [15–17], while first-person perspective was also applied [18–20].”
From Virtual walking therapy in neuropathic spinal cord injury pain: a feasibility study (2024) · cites this paper as [15]
The Visual illusion section describes patients viewing a video of walking legs aligned with their own upper-body reflection, so they could see themselves as if walking. This supports the use of a self-walking illusion, but the paper does not identify the visual viewpoint as first-person; its described mirror view does not establish that specific perspective. (LLM, conf=0.78)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
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“The combination of transcranial direct current stimulation and visual illusion reduced the intensity of neuropathic pain significantly more than any of the single interventions.”
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“To draw conclusions about the effectiveness and therapeutic outcome on pain a further study with more patients is needed.”
Background
- Authors
- Soler, M. D., Kumru, H., Pelayo, R., Vidal, J., Tormos, J. M., Fregni, F., Navarro, X., & Pascual-Leone, A.
- Affiliations
- Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (ES)
- Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center (US)
- Venue
- Brain
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2010-08-04
- Volume
- 133
- Issue
- 9
- Pages
- 2565-2577
- ISSN
- 0006-8950 (ISSN-L)
- 1460-2156
- PMC
- PMC2929331
- OpenAlex
- W2094741229
- Cited by
- 308
- References
- 67
- Citations by year
- 2026: 11 · 2025: 17 · 2024: 11 · 2023: 16 · 2022: 28 · 2021: 26 · 2020: 17 · 2019: 17 · 2018: 29 · 2017: 25 · 2016: 19 · 2015: 20 · 2014: 19 · 2013: 20 · 2012: 18
- FWCI
- 10.26
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Brain (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- RIUCV (Universidad Católica de Valencia San Vicente Martír) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Hispana (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- Brain Research Foundation
- Banco Bilbao Vizcaya Argentaria
- National Institutes of Health
- Instituto de Salud Carlos III
- National Center for Research Resources (K24RR018875)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Neurology › Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation Studies
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine › Pain Management and Treatment
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Pathology and Forensic Medicine › Spinal Cord Injury Research
- Keywords
- transcranial direct current stimulation, optical illusions, neuropathic pain, spinal cord injury, primary motor cortex, analgesia, pain management, sham stimulation, dysesthesia, paroxysmal pain
- MeSH terms
- Activities of Daily Living, Adult, Aged, Anxiety, Double-Blind Method, Female, Follow-Up Studies, Humans, Hyperalgesia, Illusions, Male, Middle Aged, Motor Cortex, Neuralgia, Pain Measurement, Psychiatric Status Rating Scales, Self Disclosure, Spinal Cord Injuries, Treatment Outcome, Statistics, Nonparametric, Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation, Young Adult
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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