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Activational and effort-related aspects of motivation: neural mechanisms and implications for psychopathology
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Motivation has been defined as the process that allows organisms to regulate their internal and external environment, and control the probability, proximity and availability of stimuli. As such, motivation is a complex process that is critical for survival, which involves multiple behavioural functions mediated by a number of interacting neural circuits. Classical theories of motivation suggest that there are both directional and activational aspects of motivation, and activational aspects (i.e. speed and vigour of both the instigation and persistence of behaviour) are critical for enabling organisms to overcome work-related obstacles or constraints that separate them from significant stimuli. The present review discusses the role of brain dopamine and related circuits in behavioural activation, exertion of effort in instrumental behaviour, and effort-related decision-making, based upon both animal and human studies. Impairments in behavioural activation and effort-related aspects of motivation are associated with psychiatric symptoms such as anergia, fatigue, lassitude and psychomotor retardation, which cross multiple pathologies, including depression, schizophrenia, and Parkinson's disease. Therefore, this review also attempts to provide an interdisciplinary approach that integrates findings from basic behavioural neuroscience, behavioural economics, clinical neuropsychology, psychiatry, and neurology, to provide a coherent framework for future research and theory in this critical field. Although dopamine systems are a critical part of the brain circuitry regulating behavioural activation, exertion of effort, and effort-related decision-making, mesolimbic dopamine is only one part of a distributed circuitry that includes multiple neurotransmitters and brain areas. Overall, there is a striking similarity between the brain areas involved in behavioural activation and effort-related processes in rodents and in humans. Animal models of effort-related decision-making are highly translatable to humans, and an emerging body of evidence indicates that alterations in effort-based decision-making are evident in several psychiatric and neurological disorders. People with major depression, schizophrenia, and Parkinson's disease show evidence of decision-making biases towards a lower exertion of effort. Translational studies linking research with animal models, human volunteers, and clinical populations are greatly expanding our knowledge about the neural basis of effort-related motivational dysfunction, and it is hoped that this research will ultimately lead to improved treatment for motivational and psychomotor symptoms in psychiatry and neurology.
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“Recent evidence points to the amygdala as playing a crucial role in effort-based decision making in rodents, with neurophysiological data showing that the amygdala plays an important role in valuing effort [40, 41].”
From Neurocomputational mechanisms underlying subjective valuation of effort costs (2017) · cites this paper as [40]
In the citing paper
“Recent evidence points to the amygdala as playing a crucial role in effort-based decision making in rodents, with neurophysiological data showing that the amygdala plays an important role in valuing effort [40, 41].”
From Neurocomputational mechanisms underlying subjective valuation of effort costs (2017) · cites this paper as [40]
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Self-citation
Metadata
- Authors
- Salamone, J. D., Yohn, S. E., López-Cruz, L., San Miguel, N., & Correa, M.
- Affiliations
- University of Connecticut (US)
- Universitat Jaume I (ES)
- Venue
- Brain
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2016-04-26
- Volume
- 139
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 1325-1347
- ISSN
- 0006-8950 (ISSN-L)
- 1460-2156
- PMC
- PMC5839596
- OpenAlex
- W2342940951
- Cited by
- 350
- References
- 299
- Citations by year
- 2026: 33 · 2025: 29 · 2024: 19 · 2023: 31 · 2022: 36 · 2021: 39 · 2020: 39 · 2019: 37 · 2018: 39 · 2017: 37 · 2016: 11
- FWCI
- 4.53
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Brain (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Open Research Online - ORO (The Open University) (acceptedVersion)
- HighWire Press Open Archive (submittedVersion)
- Repositori UJI (Universitat Jaume I) (submittedVersion, public-domain)
- Repository of Digital Objects for Teaching Research and Culture (University of Valencia) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (R03MH094966)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neurotransmitter Receptor Influence on Behavior
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Schizophrenia research and treatment
- Keywords
- motivation, behavioral activation, dopamine, anergia, fatigue, psychomotor retardation, depression, schizophrenia, Parkinson's disease, effort-based decision making, motivational dysfunction
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Decision Making, Major Depressive Disorder, Dopamine, Physical Exertion, Humans, Motivation, Neural Pathways, Parkinson Disease, Schizophrenia
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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