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Isolation, quarantine, social distancing and community containment: pivotal role for old-style public health measures in the novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) outbreak
Open accessAbstract
Public health measures were decisive in controlling the SARS epidemic in 2003. Isolation is the separation of ill persons from non-infected persons. Quarantine is movement restriction, often with fever surveillance, of contacts when it is not evident whether they have been infected but are not yet symptomatic or have not been infected. Community containment includes measures that range from increasing social distancing to community-wide quarantine. Whether these measures will be sufficient to control 2019-nCoV depends on addressing some unanswered questions.
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“Regarding the first research question and definition of quarantine, there were three references to quarantine history, two of which mentioned the outbreak of plague in Italy in the 14th century as the origin of the term.”
From Definitions and psychological impacts of quarantine and strategies to reduce it: A review paper (2020) · cites this paper as [6]
In the citing paper
“Inonecase,itwasstatedthatthetimeof waiting was 30 days for the ship and 40 days for the passengers (6, 11).”
From Definitions and psychological impacts of quarantine and strategies to reduce it: A review paper (2020) · cites this paper as [6]
In the citing paper
“Quarantine was successfully implemented as an effective measure during the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome(SARS)epidemicin2003,andithasbeenrecognized as an important component of pandemic influenza programs (6).”
From Definitions and psychological impacts of quarantine and strategies to reduce it: A review paper (2020) · cites this paper as [6]
In the citing paper
“Quarantine is said to be one of the oldest and most effective means of controlling the spread of communicable diseases.”
From Definitions and psychological impacts of quarantine and strategies to reduce it: A review paper (2020) · cites this paper as [6]
In the citing paper
“In one study, reference was made to the social distance, which included closing schools, office buildings, public markets, and canceling any public gathering (6).”
From Definitions and psychological impacts of quarantine and strategies to reduce it: A review paper (2020) · cites this paper as [6]
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“While measures were highly effective in reducing onward transmission of SARS by containment of imported cases on arrival, implementation of quarantine was resource intensive, involved coordination of multiple sectors of society, frequently required new legislative actions or authorities, and was highly dependent on ef…”
The New Challenge of Geriatrics: Saving Frail Older People from the SARS-COV-2 Pandemic Infection,
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“Following the lockdown of the earlier epicenter city of Wuhan in China, social distancing, aiming to restrain the spread, has gradually emerged as one of the most common and effective nonpharmaceutical control measures to reduce person-to-person contact (Wilder-Smith and Freedman 2020).”
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“Although the isolation and quarantine were two of the effective disease-control methods according to previous experience including SARS in 2003 (18), people in quarantine or isolation reported a high prevalence of symptoms of mental disorders (18).”
BackgroundMethodEpidemiology, genome, and clinical features of the pandemic SARS-CoV-2: a recent view
Abduljalil, J. M. A., & Abduljalil, B. (2020) · New Microbes and New Infections · doi:10.1016/j.nmni.2020.100672 · Cited by 140
“As a respiratory virus of high transmissibility, applying social distancing to reduce interactions between people on a mass scale is beneficial, especially when detection of cases is swift [56].”
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“At the same time, strict quarantine, social distancing, and isolation of known cases by individuals and communities are important to slow down the spread of COVID-19 (Anderson et al., 2020; Wilder-Smith & Freedman, 2020) , which in turn, help to address the important spatial accessibility issues.”
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Imai, N., Gaythorpe, K., Abbott, S., Bhatia, S., van Elsland, S. V., Prem, K., Liu, Y., & Ferguson, N. (2020) · Wellcome Open Research · doi:10.12688/wellcomeopenres.15808.1 · Cited by 125
“…ii) quarantine, the separation of individuals who have been assumed to be exposed and; iii) community containment, an intervention applied to an entire community aimed at reducing contacts and movements including school and workplace closures and restrictions or cancellation of mass gatherings 4 .”
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“There are encouraging signs that these measures have mitigated the spread of the virus (e.g., Lancastle 2020; Lewnard and Lo 2020; Wilder-Smith and Freedman 2020).”
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“5 m [4,5], and in a more draconian approach through a lockdown, the latter scenario is potentially addressed by applying virus-inactivating solutions capable of rapidly reducing the lifespan of the COVID-19 virus.”
Stres Akademik Mahasiswa dalam Melaksanakan Kuliah Daring Selama Masa Pandemi Covid 19
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“First, the implementation of the earlier strict lockdown has resulted in a significant reduction of contact rates, new infections, and case fatality in the country [7, 8].”
BackgroundSocial distancing in response to the novel coronavirus (COVID-19) in the United States
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“The World Health Organization (WHO) [7] and the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) [8] both recommend social distancing, as it is one of the only effective tools to reduce the spread of COVID-19 in the absence of a vaccine or effective therapeutics [9].”
BackgroundAir transportation, population density and temperature predict the spread of COVID-19 in Brazil
Pequeno, P. A. C. L., Mendel, B., Rosa, C., Bosholn, M., Souza, J. L. P., Baccaro, F. B., Barbosa, R. I., & Magnusson, W. E. (2020) · PeerJ · doi:10.7717/peerj.9322 · Cited by 128
Institutional, not home-based, isolation could contain the COVID-19 outbreak
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“Recent studies [15, 16] have shown that the early identification, isolation, and treatment of COVID-19 were very important.”
Ismail, L. C., Osaili, T. M. I., Mohamad, M. N., Marzouqi, A. M. A., Jarrar, A. H., Zampelas, A., Habib-Mourad, C., Jamous, D. O. A., Ali, H. I., Sabbah, H. A., et al. (2020) · British Journal Of Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s0007114520004547 · Cited by 124
“entertainment; (6) stress and irritability (two items): physical exhaustion, emotional exhaustion, irritability and tension and (7) sleep (eight items) sleep duration, sleep quality, sleep disturbances and energy level.”
Face Mask Detection Using MobileNetV2 in The Era of COVID-19 Pandemic
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“So that, Indonesia and other countries are depending on the implemented interventions by the authorities, for instance, physical distancing and wearing a face mask in the public place to impede COVID-19 transmission [4]-[6].”
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“Infection control measures, such as wearing masks, the suspension of public gatherings, school closures, and travel restrictions, remain the mainstays of prevention, although they have seriously impacted daily life and the global economy [4].”
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“, 2020) but caused psychological stress for many people affected by them (Donovan and Blazer, 2020; Wilder-Smith and Freedman, 2020).”
BackgroundCOVID ‐19 in the geriatric population
Roy, J., Jain, R., Golamari, R. R., Vunnam, R. R., & Sahu, N. (2020) · International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry · doi:10.1002/gps.5389 · Cited by 123
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The effect of national lockdown due to COVID-19 on emergency department visits
Kuitunen, I., Ponkilainen, V., Launonen, A. P., Reito, A. R., Hevonkorpi, T. P., Paloneva, J., & Mattila, V. M. (2020) · Scandinavian Journal of Trauma Resuscitation and Emergency Medicine · doi:10.1186/s13049-020-00810-0 · Cited by 113
“Indeed, it has been suggested that social distancing might have reduced the spread of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) in 2003 and H1N1 influenza in 2009 [9, 10].”
BackgroundCOVID-19 in comparison with other emerging viral diseases: risk of geographic spread via travel
Wilder‐Smith, A. (2021) · Tropical Diseases Travel Medicine and Vaccines · doi:10.1186/s40794-020-00129-9 · Cited by 121
“Despite these differences, policy responses used to tackle viral epidemics have tended to be similar across time and countries – social distancing, quarantines, school closures [5], and”
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“Social distancing aims to reduce the interactions between people in a broader community and is useful for communities where individuals may be infectious but have not yet been identified and are thus not isolated [2].”
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Community movement and COVID-19: a global study using Google's Community Mobility Reports
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“In an effort to slow down its transmission, countries around the world implemented social/physical distancing guidelines [3], compelling individuals to stay at least 6 feet (2 meters) away from anyone outside their household [4].”
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“Selected cites with their population, the number of monitoring stations taken into account, COVID-19 cases per million people, their geographical coordinates, and start and end date of lockdown are given in Table 1.”
BackgroundInfluentialCoronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) and Nutritional Status: The Missing Link?
Silvério, R., Gonçalves, D. C., Andrade, M. F., & Seelaender, M. C. L. (2020) · Advances in Nutrition · doi:10.1093/advances/nmaa125 · Cited by 120
“Distancing measures aimed at the reduction of social interaction have been adopted in several countries as a measure to reduce the spread of SARS-CoV-2 infection (76).”
A social identity perspective on COVID‐19: Health risk is affected by shared group membership
Cruwys, T., Stevens, M. R., & Greenaway, K. H. (2020) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjso.12391 · Cited by 109
“These broad evidence-based measures have been effective in helping to slow, and ultimately halt, the spread of infectious diseases such as SARS in the past (Wilder-Smith & Freedman, 2020), and have helped attenuate the spread of COVID-19 (Anderson, Heesterbeek, Klinkenberg, & Hollingsworth, 2020).”
BackgroundAkdeniz, G., Kavakcı, M., Gozugok, M., Yalcinkaya, S., Küçükay, A., & Şahutoğulları, B. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00695 · Cited by 110
Impact of the novel coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic on sleep
on behalf of the BSS task force on early detection screening, Pérez‐Carbonell, L., Meurling, J., Wasserman, D., Gnoni, V., Leschziner, G. D., Weighall, A., Ellis, J. G., Durrant, S. J., Hare, A., et al. (2020) · Journal of Thoracic Disease · doi:10.21037/jtd-cus-2020-015 · Cited by 105
“These measures included trackand-tracing, self-isolation, quarantine, social distancing and community containment, as well as nationwide lockdowns (3).”
BackgroundUsing Insights from Behavioral Economics to Mitigate the Spread of COVID-19
Soofi, M., Najafi, F., & Matin, B. K. (2020) · Applied Health Economics and Health Policy · doi:10.1007/s40258-020-00595-4 · Cited by 115
Singh, V. K., Chandna, H., Kumar, A., Kumar, S., Upadhyay, N., & Utkarsh, K. (2020) · EAI Endorsed Transactions on Internet of Things · doi:10.4108/eai.13-7-2018.163997 · Cited by 105
“To mitigate the growth of infections, quarantine (along with the isolation and social distancing) plays a pivotal role [9] which according to the WHO [10] is defined as, “ the quarantine of persons is the restriction of activities of or the separation of persons who are not ill but who may be…”
BackgroundBoterman, W. R. (2020) · Tijdschrift voor Economische en Sociale Geografie · doi:10.1111/tesg.12437 · Cited by 105
Environmental Impacts of Personal Protective Clothing Used to Combat COVID‐ 19
Uddin, M. A., Afroj, S., Hasan, T., Carr, C., Novoselov, K. S., & Karim, N. (2021) · Advanced Sustainable Systems · doi:10.1002/adsu.202100176 · Cited by 112
“The World Health Organisation (WHO) has prescribed a variety of measures to contain and prevent the spread of viruses to the community and health care workers,(3) which includes community lockdown, travel restrictions, social distancing, isolation, hand sanitising and the mass wearing of disposable face masks and glov…”
BackgroundEscalera-Antezana, J. P., Lizon-Ferrufino, N. F., Maldonado-Alanoca, A., Alarcón-De-la-Vega, G., Alvarado-Arnez, L. E., Balderrama-Saavedra, M. A., Bonilla‐Aldana, D. K., & Rodriguez-Morales, A. J. (2020) · Travel Medicine and Infectious Disease · doi:10.1016/j.tmaid.2020.101653 · Cited by 102
“This highlights the relevance of the spread of the COVID-19 due to population movements that has affected Bolivia, but also countries in South America, and most in the Latin American and the Caribbean region.”
InfluentialForecast and evaluation of COVID-19 spreading in USA with reduced-space Gaussian process regression
Velásquez, R. M. A., & Lara, J. V. M. (2020) · Chaos Solitons & Fractals · doi:10.1016/j.chaos.2020.109924 · Cited by 106
I love you, but you let me down! How hate and retaliation damage customer-brand relationship
Jabeen, F., Kaur, P., Talwar, S., Malodia, S., & Dhir, A. (2021) · Technological Forecasting and Social Change · doi:10.1016/j.techfore.2021.121183 · Cited by 103
Minimizing intra-hospital transmission of COVID-19: the role of social distancing
Wee, L. E., Conceicao, E. P., Sim, X. Y. J., Aung, M. K., Tan, K. Y., Wong, H. M., Wijaya, L., Tan, B. H., Ling, M. L., & Venkatachalam, I. (2020) · Journal of Hospital Infection · doi:10.1016/j.jhin.2020.04.016 · Cited by 100
“While social distancing has been identified as crucial for containment in the community [2], social distancing within hospitals is equally vital in reducing nosocomial spread, especially in hospitals where the majority of patients are nursed in multi-bedded cohort rooms, rather than in single-occupancy rooms.”
Hruschak, V., Flowers, K. M., Azizoddin, D. R., Jamison, R. N., Edwards, R. R., & Schreiber, K. L. (2020) · Pain · doi:10.1097/j.pain.0000000000002128 · Cited by 104
“We were interested in investigating how psychosocial characteristicsmay interact with the social isolation imposed by theCOVID19 pandemic, which is itself associated with significant uncertainty and fear.(40,67) Interestingly, although loneliness was associated with worse pain interference on the univariable regressio…”
BackgroundExploratory study on the psychological impact of COVID-19 on the general Brazilian population
Serafim, A. D. P., Durães, R. S. S., Rocca, C. C. D. A., Gonçalves, P. D., Saffi, F., Cappellozza, A., Paulino, M., Dumas-Diniz, R., Brissos, S., Brites, R., et al. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0245868 · Cited by 124
The incubation period of COVID-19: A meta-analysis
Elias, C., Sekri, A., Leblanc, P., Cucherat, M., & Vanhems, P. (2021) · International Journal of Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1016/j.ijid.2021.01.069 · Cited by 99
Using chatbots for English language learning in higher education
Annamalai, N., Rashid, R. A., Hashmi, U. M., Mohamed, M. H., Alqaryouti, M. H., & Sadeq, A. E. (2023) · Computers and Education Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.caeai.2023.100153 · Cited by 165
Andeobu, L., Wibowo, S., & Grandhi, S. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19031381 · Cited by 98
“According to Wilder-Smith and Freedman [40], Malekahmadi and Yunesian [32], and USEPA [41], medical waste from human activities has been identified as the third largest known source of dioxin emission and contributes 10% of total mercury emissions to the environment.”
BackgroundKim, E.-A. L. (2020) · Safety and Health at Work · doi:10.1016/j.shaw.2020.07.006 · Cited by 97
“This is because the infection control of Korea followed the traditional public health measures on infection outbreak, isolation and quarantine, social distancing, and community containment to prevent the person-to-person spread of disease [28].”
Chinna, K., Sundarasen, S., Khoshaim, H. B., Kamaludin, K., Nurunnabi, M., Baloch, G., Hossain, S. F. A., Sukayt, A., Dalina, N., Rajagopalan, U., et al. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0253059 · Cited by 110
“During the COVID-19 pandemic, countries across the globe took various measures to control the spread of the disease [41].”
BackgroundRole of telemedicine in healthcare during COVID-19 pandemic in developing countries
Kadir, M. A. (2020) · Telehealth and Medicine Today · doi:10.30953/tmt.v5.187 · Cited by 95
Social solidarity during a pandemic: Through and beyond Durkheimian Lens
Mishra, C., & Rath, N. (2020) · Social Sciences & Humanities Open · doi:10.1016/j.ssaho.2020.100079 · Cited by 95
Humagain, P., & Singleton, P. A. (2021) · Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism · doi:10.1016/j.jort.2021.100447 · Cited by 94
Marhefka, S. L., Lockhart, E. A., & Turner, D. E. (2020) · AIDS and Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10461-020-02837-x · Cited by 94
Fear of COVID-19 and Mental Health: The Role of Mindfulness in During Times of Crisis
Belen, H. (2022) · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/s11469-020-00470-2 · Cited by 92
“…Educational Sciences, Psychological Counseling and Guidance, Bursa Uludag University, Ozluce, Gorukle Campus, 16059 Nilüfer, Bursa, Turkey taken including home confinement, social distancing, compulsory face mask usage, travel bans, and school suspensions (Wilder-Smith & Freedman, 2020).”
BackgroundCouto, M. T., Barbieri, C. L. A., & Matos, C. C. D. S. A. (2021) · Saúde e Sociedade · doi:10.1590/s0104-12902021200450 · Cited by 108
Manohar, T. S., Balan, V., & Sivaramakrishnan, V. (2020) · Phytotherapy Research · doi:10.1002/ptr.6794 · Cited by 95
“This can be implemented either at home or in a hospital/isolation facility (Wilder-Smith & Freedman, 2020; Tang et al., 2020).”
BackgroundHuang, J. W., Kwan, M., Kan, Z., Wong, M. S., Kwok, C. Y. T., & Yu, X. (2020) · ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information · doi:10.3390/ijgi9110624 · Cited by 90
“Measures like social distancing, travel restrictions, and stay-at-home orders are non-pharmaceutical interventions for controlling the spread of COVID-19 by reducing the close contact among people and changing their behaviors [6].”
BackgroundKing, J. T., Yoon, J. S., Rentsch, C. T., Tate, J. P., Park, L. S., Kidwai‐Khan, F., Skanderson, M., Hauser, R. G., Jacobson, D., Erdos, J., et al. (2020) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0241825 · Cited by 89
“The highly contagious nature of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV2), the lack of widespread immunity, and the absence of an effective vaccine ensure continued spread of the virus among the general population [1].”
BackgroundFirearms Injuries Involving Young Children in the United States During the COVID-19 Pandemic
Cohen, J. S., Donnelly, K. A., Patel, S. J., Badolato, G. M., Boyle, M. D., McCarter, R., & Goyal, M. K. (2021) · PEDIATRICS · doi:10.1542/peds.2020-042697 · Cited by 92
Sánchez, G. F. L., López‐Bueno, R., Gil-Salmerón, A., Zauder, R., Skalska, M., Jastrzębska, J., Jastrzębski, Z., Schuch, F. B., Grabovac, I., Tully, M. A., et al. (2020) · European Journal of Public Health · doi:10.1093/eurpub/ckaa159 · Cited by 88
Early Psychological Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic in Brazil: A National Survey
Campos, J. Á. D. B., Martins, B. G., Campos, L. A., Marôco, J. P., Saadiq, R. A., & Ruano, R. (2020) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm9092976 · Cited by 91
Khan, A. G., Kamruzzaman, M., Rahman, M. N., Mahmood, M., & Uddin, M. A. (2021) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e06407 · Cited by 89
“Social distancing decreases the interactions between individuals in a broader community so that the infection of any disease can be contained (Wilder-Smith and Freedman, 2020).”
RetractedRombolà, G., Heidempergher, M., Pedrini, L. A., Farina, M., Aucella, F., Messa, P., & Brunori, G. (2020) · Journal of Nephrology · doi:10.1007/s40620-020-00727-y · Cited by 87
Change in five-factor model personality traits during the acute phase of the coronavirus pandemic
Sutin, A. R., Luchetti, M., Aschwanden, D., Lee, J. H., Sesker, A. A., Strickhouser, J. E., Stéphan, Y., & Terracciano, A. (2020) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0237056 · Cited by 99
“Such measures are essential to slow the spread of the virus [5].”
BackgroundThe impact of economic uncertainty caused by COVID-19 on renewable energy stocks
Liu, T., Nakajima, T., & Hamori, S. (2021) · Empirical Economics · doi:10.1007/s00181-021-02087-3 · Cited by 86
COVID-19 prevention measures in Ethiopia: Current realities and prospects
Baye, K. (2020) · doi:10.2499/p15738coll2.133729 · Cited by 86
Failure in initial stage containment of global COVID‐19 epicenters
Khosrawipour, V., Lau, H., Khosrawipour, T., Kocbach, P., Ichii, H., Bania, J., & Mikołajczyk, A. (2020) · Journal of Medical Virology · doi:10.1002/jmv.25883 · Cited by 84
COVID-19: Insight into the asymptomatic SARS-COV-2 infection and transmission
Han, D., Li, R., Han, Y., Zhang, R., & Li, J. (2020) · International Journal of Biological Sciences · doi:10.7150/ijbs.48991 · Cited by 89
Metadata
- Authors
- Wilder-Smith, A., & Freedman, D. O.
- Affiliations
- Department of Disease Control, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel St, Bloomsbury, London WC1E 7HT, UK
- University of Alabama (US)
- ORCID
- Freedman, D O
- Venue
- Journal of Travel Medicine
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2020-02-13
- Volume
- 27
- Issue
- 2
- ISSN
- 1195-1982 (ISSN-L)
- 1708-8305
- PMC
- PMC7107565
- OpenAlex
- W3006533361
- Cited by
- 2,727
- References
- 11
- Citations by year
- 2026: 29 · 2025: 73 · 2024: 119 · 2023: 311 · 2022: 489 · 2021: 870 · 2020: 833
- FWCI
- 99.73
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- academic.oup.com/journals/pages/open_access/funder_policies/chorus/standard_publication_model (vor)
- Locations
- Journal of Travel Medicine (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Modeling and Simulation › COVID-19 epidemiological studies
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › COVID-19 Prevention and Impact
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Infectious Diseases › SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 Research
- Keywords
- SARS-CoV-2, COVID-19 pandemic, isolation, quarantine, social distancing, fever surveillance, contact tracing, SARS, epidemic control, public health measures
- MeSH terms
- Betacoronavirus, COVID-19, SARS-CoV-2, China, Humans, Patient Isolation, Pneumonia, Viral, Public Health, Quarantine, Coronavirus Infections, Disease Transmission, Infectious, Vulnerable Populations, Pandemics
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