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What controls star formation in the central 500 pc of the Galaxy?
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The star formation rate (SFR) in the Central Molecular Zone (CMZ, i.e. the central 500 pc) of the Milky Way is lower by a factor of ≥10 than expected for the substantial amount of dense gas it contains, which challenges current star formation theories. In this paper, we quantify which physical mechanisms could be responsible. On scales larger than the disc scaleheight, the low SFR is found to be consistent with episodic star formation due to secular instabilities or possibly variations of the gas inflow along the Galactic bar. The CMZ is marginally Toomre-stable when including gas and stars, but highly Toomre-stable when only accounting for the gas, indicating a low condensation rate of self-gravitating clouds. On small scales, we find that the SFR in the CMZ may be caused by an elevated critical density for star formation due to the high turbulent pressure. The existence of a universal density threshold for star formation is ruled out. The H i–H2 phase transition of hydrogen, the tidal field, a possible underproduction of massive stars due to a bottom-heavy initial mass function, magnetic fields, and cosmic ray or radiation pressure feedback also cannot individually explain the low SFR. We propose a self-consistent cycle of star formation in the CMZ, in which the effects of several different processes combine to inhibit star formation. The rate-limiting factor is the slow evolution of the gas towards collapse – once star formation is initiated it proceeds at a normal rate. The ubiquity of star formation inhibitors suggests that a lowered central SFR should be a common phenomenon in other galaxies. We discuss the implications for galactic-scale star formation and supermassive black hole growth, and relate our results to the star formation conditions in other extreme environments.
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“Detailed dynamical modeling suggests that the gas accumulation time for the Milky-Way CMZis about ∼ 10 -50 Myr which represents the expected time scale between two star-formation events, with each event lasting for a dynamical time of a few Myr at the CMZ (Kruijssen et al. 2014; Krumholz et al. 2017; Armillotta et al. 2019, 2020; Sormani et al. 2020b).”
From The Fermi/eROSITA bubbles: a look into the nuclear outflow from the Milky Way (2024) · cites this paper as Kruijssen et al. 2014
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Heyer, M., Gutermuth, R., Urquhart, J. S., Csengeri, T., Wienen, M., Leurini, S., Menten, K., & Wyrowski, F. (2016) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201527681 · Cited by 71
Henshaw, J. D., Longmore, S. N., & Kruijssen, J. M. D. (2016) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society Letters · doi:10.1093/mnrasl/slw168 · Cited by 70
Self-citationQuerejeta, M., Schinnerer, E., Schruba, A., Murphy, E. J., Meidt, S., Usero, A., Leroy, A., Pety, J., Bigiel, F., Chevance, M., et al. (2019) · Astronomy & Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201834915 · Cited by 38
Self-citationThe dynamics and star-forming potential of the massive Galactic centre cloud G0.253+0.016
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Tracing the conversion of gas into stars in Young Massive Cluster Progenitors
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Self-citationEvolution of Stellar Feedback in H ii Regions
Olivier, G. M., Lopez, L. A., Rosen, A. L., Nayak, O., Reiter, M., Krumholz, M. R., & Bolatto, A. D. (2021) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/abd24a · Cited by 62
Star Clusters in Evolving Galaxies
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The resolved star-formation relation in nearby active galactic nuclei
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Nuclear spirals in the inner Milky Way
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KINEMATIC DETECTION OF THE GALACTIC NUCLEAR DISK
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The Dense Gas Fraction in Galactic Center Clouds
Mills, E. A. C., Ginsburg, A., Immer, K., Barnes, J. M., Wiesenfeld, L., Faure, A., Morris, M. R., & Requena-Torres, M. A. (2018) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aae581 · Cited by 60
The rate and latency of star formation in dense, massive clumps in the Milky Way
Heyer, M. H., Gutermuth, R., Urquhart, J. S., Csengeri, T., Wienen, M., Leurini, S., Menten, K. M., & Wyrowski, F. (2016) · Repository of the Academy's Library (Library of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences) · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201527681/pdf · Cited by 60
CMZoom: Survey Overview and First Data Release
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Self-citationStar Formation Rates of Massive Molecular Clouds in the Central Molecular Zone
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Self-citationPrevalent externally driven protoplanetary disc dispersal as a function of the galactic environment
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Self-citationCHIMPS: physical properties of molecular clumps across the inner Galaxy
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Self-citationAn instability of feedback regulated star formation in galactic nuclei
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Self-citationThe resolved star-formation relation in nearby active galactic nuclei
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ABUNDANT CH3OH MASERS BUT NO NEW EVIDENCE FOR STAR FORMATION IN GCM0.253+0.016
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Self-citationThe Galactic Center Molecular Cloud Survey
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The dense gas mass fraction in the W51 cloud and its protoclusters
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Observational constraints on star cluster formation theory
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The Molecular Gas Environment in the 20 km s−1 Cloud in the Central Molecular Zone
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Self-citationCosmological simulations of dwarfs: the need for ISM physics beyond SN feedback alone
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Do Spectroscopic Dense Gas Fractions Track Molecular Cloud Surface Densities?
Gallagher, M., Leroy, A. K., Bigiel, F., Cormier, D., Jiménez-Donaire, M. J., Hughes, A., Pety, J., Schinnerer, E., Sun, J., Usero, A., et al. (2018) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8213/aaf16a · Cited by 43
Self-citationThe prevalence of star formation as a function of Galactocentric radius
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Metadata
- Authors
- Kruijssen, J. M. D., Longmore, S. N., Elmegreen, B. G., Murray, N., Bally, J., Testi, L., & Kennicutt, R. C.
- Affiliations
- Max Planck Society (DE)
- European Southern Observatory (DE)
- IBM Research - Thomas J. Watson Research Center (US)
- University of Toronto (CA)
- University of Colorado Boulder (US)
- University of Cambridge (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Kruijssen, J. M. Diederik
- ORCID
- Venue
- Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2014-04-17
- Volume
- 440
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 3370-3391
- ISSN
- 0035-8711 (ISSN-L)
- 1365-2966
- OpenAlex
- W1974701556
- Cited by
- 288
- References
- 226
- Citations by year
- 2026: 11 · 2025: 20 · 2024: 21 · 2023: 13 · 2022: 19 · 2021: 22 · 2020: 29 · 2019: 25 · 2018: 24 · 2017: 35 · 2016: 28 · 2015: 26 · 2014: 13
- FWCI
- 18.33
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society (publishedVersion)
- Liverpool John Moores University (acceptedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University) (submittedVersion)
- Archivio istituzionale della ricerca (Alma Mater Studiorum Università di Bologna) (submittedVersion)
- Max Planck Digital Library (submittedVersion)
- MPG.PuRe (Max Planck Society) (submittedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation (1066293)
- National Aeronautics and Space Administration
- California Institute of Technology
- Aspen Center for Physics (1066293, PHY-1066293)
- Johns Hopkins University
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory
- Science and Technology Facilities Council (ST/L00061X/1, ST/H00243X/1)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Astrophysics and Star Formation Studies
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Galaxies: Formation, Evolution, Phenomena
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Astrophysical Phenomena and Observations
- Keywords
- star formation rate, Central Molecular Zone, Milky Way, secular instability, galactic bars, gas inflow, turbulent pressure, critical density threshold, tidal field, magnetic field, cosmic ray feedback, supermassive black hole growth, dense gas
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