A dynamical model for the formation of gas rings and episodic starbursts near galactic centres
Open accessAbstract
We develop a simple dynamical model for the evolution of gas in the centres of barred spiral galaxies, using the Milky Way's Central Molecular Zone (CMZ, i.e. the central few hundred pc) as a case study. We show that, in the presence of a galactic bar, gas in a disc in the central regions of a galaxy will be driven inwards by angular momentum transport induced by acoustic instabilities within the bar's inner Lindblad resonance. This transport process drives turbulence within the gas that temporarily keeps it strongly gravitationally stable and prevents the onset of rapid star formation. However, at some point the rotation curve must transition from approximately flat to approximately solid body, and the resulting reduction in shear reduces the transport rates and causes gas to build up, eventually producing a gravitationally unstable region that is subject to rapid and violent star formation. For the observed rotation curve of the Milky Way, the accumulation happens ∼100 pc from the centre of the Galaxy, in good agreement with the observed location of gas clouds and young star clusters in the CMZ. The characteristic time-scale for gas accumulation and star formation is of the order of 10–20 Myr. We argue that similar phenomena should be ubiquitous in other barred spiral galaxies.
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Gas transiting from the x1 to the x2 orbit does not form stars because of its high-velocity dispersion due to shear in a flat rotation curve.
“Gas transiting from the x 1 to the x 2 orbit, however, does not form stars because of its high-velocity dispersion due to the shear in a flat rotation curve.”
From The Fermi/eROSITA bubbles: a look into the nuclear outflow from the Milky Way (2024) · cites this paper as Krumholz & Kruijssen 2015
Section 5.5 says that rapid inflow has instability-driven velocity dispersion that makes the gas unable to collapse and form stars; Section 4.1 links the instability and transport to shear where the rotation curve is close to flat. But Section 5.5 says the model assumes gas has already been transferred from x1 to x2 orbits by shocks, so it does not establish this explanation specifically for gas during that transition. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.82)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredGas settles down to the x2 orbit and starts forming stars only after reaching a solid body rotation regime where shear-driven turbulence and angular momentum transport is suppressed.
“The gas settles down to the x 2 orbit and starts forming stars only after reaching a solid body rotation regime where the shear-driven turbulence and angular momentum transport is suppressed (Krumholz & Kruijssen 2015).”
From The Fermi/eROSITA bubbles: a look into the nuclear outflow from the Milky Way (2024) · cites this paper as Krumholz & Kruijssen 2015
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ON THE DYNAMICS AND EVOLUTION OF GRAVITATIONAL INSTABILITY-DOMINATED DISKS
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Self-citationG0.253 + 0.016: A MOLECULAR CLOUD PROGENITOR OF AN ARCHES-LIKE CLUSTER
Longmore, S., Rathborne, J., Bastian, N., Alves, J., Ascenso, J., Bally, J., Testi, L., Longmore, A., Battersby, C., Bressert, E., et al. (2011) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/746/2/117 · Cited by 129 · see citing works
EVOLVING GRAVITATIONALLY UNSTABLE DISKS OVER COSMIC TIME: IMPLICATIONS FOR THICK DISK FORMATION
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Self-citationSormani, M. C., Binney, J., & Magorrian, J. (2015) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stv441 · Cited by 127 · see citing works
Rosolowsky, E., & Blitz, L. (2005) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1086/428897 · Cited by 120 · see citing works
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Martini, P., Regan, M. W., Mulchaey, J. S., & Pogge, R. W. (2002) · CERN Document Server (European Organization for Nuclear Research) · Cited by 107 · see citing works
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Models of Vertically Stratified Two‐Phase ISM Disks with MRI‐Driven Turbulence
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Discrete spiral modes, spiral waves, and the local dispersion relationship
Lau, Y. Y., & Bertin, G. (1978) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1086/156635 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
Piontek, R. A., & Ostriker, E. C. (2004) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1086/380785 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
Cacciato, M., Dekel, A., & Genel, S. (2012) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2011.20359.x · Cited by 101 · see citing works
Dynamics of Dense Cores in the Perseus Molecular CloudPreprint
Kirk, H., Johnstone, D., & Tafalla, M. (2012) · Cited by 98 · see citing works
The formation of stellar nuclear discs in bar-induced gas inflows
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DISSIPATION AND HEATING IN SUPERSONIC HYDRODYNAMIC AND MHD TURBULENCE
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A comparative study of giant molecular clouds in M51, M33, and the Large Magellanic Cloud
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Crocker, R. M. (2012) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2012.21149.x · Cited by 88 · see citing works
Bally, J., Aguirre, J., Battersby, C., Bradley, E. T., Cyganowski, C., Dowell, D., Drosback, M., Dunham, M., Evans, N., Ginsburg, A., et al. (2010) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/721/1/137 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
The H2O Southern Galactic Plane Survey: NH3 (1,1) and (2,2) catalogues
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The origin of physical variations in the star formation law
Federrath, C. (2013) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stt1799 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Thompson, T. A., & Krumholz, M. R. (2015) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stv2331 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Self-citationANALYTICAL THEORY FOR THE INITIAL MASS FUNCTION. III. TIME DEPENDENCE AND STAR FORMATION RATE
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The pattern speed of the OH/IR stars in the Milky Way
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THE GALACTIC CENTER CLOUD G0.253+0.016: A MASSIVE DENSE CLOUD WITH LOW STAR FORMATION POTENTIAL
Kauffmann, J., Pillai, T., & Zhang, Q.-Z. (2013) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.1088/2041-8205/765/2/l35 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
G0.253+0.016: A CENTRALLY CONDENSED, HIGH-MASS PROTOCLUSTER
Rathborne, J. M., Longmore, S. N., Jackson, J. M., Foster, J. B., Contreras, Y., Garay, G., Testi, L., Alves, J. F., Bally, J., Bastian, N., et al. (2014) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/786/2/140 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Self-citationEvolving gravitationally unstable disks over cosmic time: implications for thick disk formation
Forbes, J., Krumholz, M., & Burkert, A. (2012) · MPG.PuRe (Max Planck Society) · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Self-citationON THE TEMPERATURE STRUCTURE OF THE GALACTIC CENTER CLOUD G0.253+0.016
Clark, P. C., Glover, S. C. O., Ragan, S. E., Shetty, R., & Klessen, R. S. (2013) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.1088/2041-8205/768/2/l34 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
STAR FORMATION LAWS AND THRESHOLDS FROM INTERSTELLAR MEDIUM STRUCTURE AND TURBULENCE
Renaud, F., Kraljic, K., & Bournaud, F. (2012) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.1088/2041-8205/760/1/l16 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
On the dynamics and evolution of gravitational instability-dominated disks
Krumholz, M., & Burkert, A. (2010) · Max Planck Digital Library · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Self-citationWalsh, A., Myers, P., & Burton, M. (2004) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1086/423425 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
STELLAR KINEMATICS OF YOUNG CLUSTERS IN TURBULENT HYDRODYNAMIC SIMULATIONS
Offner, S. S. R., Hansen, C. E., & Krumholz, M. R. (2009) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/704/2/l124 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Self-citationPhysical properties of dense molecular gas in centres of Seyfert galaxies
Sani, E., Davies, R., Sternberg, A., Graciá-Carpio, J., Hicks, E. K. S., Krips, M., Tacconi, L. J., Genzel, R., Vollmer, B., Schinnerer, E., et al. (2012) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2012.21333.x · Cited by 67 · see citing works
The morphology of the Milky Way – I. Reconstructing CO maps from simulations in fixed potentials
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PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF THE CIRCUMNUCLEAR STARBURST RING IN THE BARRED GALAXY NGC 1097
Hsieh, P.-Y., Matsushita, S., Liu, G., Ho, P. T. P., Oi, N., & Wu, Y.-L. (2011) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/736/2/129 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Curvature and Acoustic Instabilities in Rotating Fluid Disks
Montenegro, L. E., Yuan, C., & Elmegreen, B. G. (1999) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1086/307465 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Galaxy Zoo: the dependence of the star formation–stellar mass relation on spiral disc morphology
Willett, K., Schawinski, K., Simmons, B., Masters, K., Skibba, R., Kaviraj, S., Melvin, T., Wong, O. I., Nichol, R., Cheung, E., et al. (2015) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stv307 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
A new model for the Milky Way bar
Wang, Y., Zhao, H., Mao, S., et al. (2012) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2012.22063.x · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Gasdynamics in NGC 5248: Fueling a Circumnuclear Starburst Ring of Super–Star Clusters
Jogee, S., Shlosman, I., Laine, S. J., Englmaier, P., Knapen, J. H., Scoville, N. Z., & Wilson, C. D. (2002) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1086/341196 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Dense gas without star formation: the kpc-sized turbulent molecular disk in 3C 326 N
Nesvadba, N. P. H., Boulanger, F., Lehnert, M. D., Guillard, P., & Salomé, P. (2011) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201118018 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
G0.253+0.016: A Centrally Condensed, High-mass Protocluster
Rathborne, J. M., Longmore, S. N., Jackson, J. M., Foster, J. B., Contreras, Y., Garay, G., Testi, L., Alves, J., Bally, J., Bastian, N., et al. (2014) · Americanae (AECID Library) · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Self-citationSalim, D., Federrath, C., & Kewley, L. (2015) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.1088/2041-8205/806/2/l36 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
ABUNDANT CH3OH MASERS BUT NO NEW EVIDENCE FOR STAR FORMATION IN GCM0.253+0.016
Mills, E. A. C., Butterfield, N., Ludovici, D., Lang, C., Ott, J., Morris, M., & Schmitz, S. (2015) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/805/1/72 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
On the Interpretation of the l–v Features in the Milky Way Galaxy
Baba, J., Takayuki, R. S., & Wada, K. (2010) · Publications of the Astronomical Society of Japan · doi:10.1093/pasj/62.6.1413 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Offner, S. S. R., Krumholz, M. R., Klein, R. I., et al. (2008) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-6256/136/1/404 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Self-citationMAIN-SEQUENCE STARS MASQUERADING AS YOUNG STELLAR OBJECTS IN THE CENTRAL MOLECULAR ZONE
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Curvature and Acoustic Instabilities in Rotating Fluid DisksPreprint
Yuan, C., & Elmegreen, B. G. (1999) · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Massive Star Formation in the Molecular Ring Orbiting the Black Hole at the Galactic Center
Yusef-Zadeh, F., Braatz, J. A., Wardle, M., & Roberts, D. A. (2008) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1086/591731 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Dusty Acoustic Turbulence in the Nuclear Disks of Two LINER Galaxies NGC 4450 and NGC 4736
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Physics of Astrophysics, Vol. II
Shu, F. H. (1992) · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Mapping far-IR emission from the central kiloparsec of NGC 1097
Sandstrom, K. M., Krause, O., Linz, H., Schinnerer, E., Dumas, G., Meidt, S. E., Rix, H., Sauvage, M., Walter, F., Kennicutt, R. C., et al. (2010) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201014583 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Physical properties of dense molecular gas in centres of Seyfert galaxies
Sani, E., Davies, R., Sternberg, A., Graciá‐Carpio, J., Hicks, E. K. S., Krips, M., Tacconi, L. J., Genzel, R., Vollmer, B., Schinnerer, E., et al. (2012) · Max Planck Institute for Plasma Physics · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Smoothing and Differentiation of Spectroscopic Curves Using Spline Functions
Gans, P., & Gill, J. B. (1984) · Applied Spectroscopy · doi:10.1366/0003702844555511 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF THE CIRCUMNUCLEAR STARBURST RING IN THE BARRED GALAXY NGCPreprint
Hsieh, P., Matsushita, S., Liu, G., Ho, P. T. P., Oi, N., & Wu, Y.-L. (2016) · Cited by 33 · see citing works
THE MOLECULAR GAS DENSITY IN GALAXY CENTERS AND HOW IT CONNECTS TO BULGES
Fisher, D., Bolatto, A., Drory, N., Combes, F., Blitz, L., & Wong, T. (2012) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/764/2/174 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Dusty Acoustic Turbulence in the Nuclear Disks of two LINER Galaxies NGC 4450 and NGC 4736
Elmegreen, D. M., Elmegreen, B. G., & Eberwein, K. S. (2001) · CERN Document Server (European Organization for Nuclear Research) · Cited by 21 · see citing works
A TEST OF STAR FORMATION LAWS IN DISK GALAXIES. II. DEPENDENCE ON DYNAMICAL PROPERTIES
Suwannajak, C., Tan, J. C., & Leroy, A. (2014) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/787/1/68 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
ABSORPTION FILAMENTS TOWARD THE MASSIVE CLUMP G0.253+0.016
Bally, J., Rathborne, J. M., Longmore, S. N., Jackson, J. M., Alves, J., Bressert, E., Contreras, Y., Foster, J. B., Garay, G., Ginsburg, A. G., et al. (2014) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/795/1/28 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Self-citationVADER: A flexible, robust, open-source code for simulating viscous thin accretion disks
Krumholz, M. R., & Forbes, J. C. (2015) · Astronomy and Computing · doi:10.1016/j.ascom.2015.02.005 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Self-citation
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 3
- Binney J., Tremaine S., 1987, Galactic Dynamics. Princeton Univ. Press, Princeton, NJ
- Chabrier G., 2005, in Corbelli E., Palla F., Zinnecker H., eds, Astrophysics and Space Science Library, Vol. 327, The Initial Mass Function 50 Years Later. Springer, Dordrecht, p.
- Thompson T. A., Krumholz M. R., 2014, preprint (arXiv:e-prints)
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Star formation rates and efficiencies in the Galactic Centre
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Self-citationThe 1.28 GHz MeerKAT Galactic Center Mosaic
Heywood, I., Rammala, I., Camilo, F., Cotton, W. D., Yusef-Zadeh, F., Abbott, T. D., Adam, R. M., Adams, G., Aldera, M. A., Asad, K. M. B., et al. (2022) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac449a · Cited by 136 · see citing works
A dynamical model for gas flows, star formation and nuclear winds in galactic centres
Krumholz, M. R., Kruijssen, J. M. D., & Crocker, R. M. (2017) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stw3195 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
Self-citationThe life cycle of the Central Molecular Zone – I. Inflow, star formation, and winds
Armillotta, L., Krumholz, M. R., Di Teodoro, E. M., & McClure-Griffiths, N. M. (2019) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stz2880 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Self-citationBlowing in the Milky Way Wind: Neutral Hydrogen Clouds Tracing the Galactic Nuclear Outflow
Di Teodoro, E. M., McClure-Griffiths, N. M., Lockman, F. J., Denbo, S. R., Endsley, R., Ford, H. A., & Harrington, K. (2018) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aaad6a · Cited by 79 · see citing works
The Fermi/eROSITA bubbles: a look into the nuclear outflow from the Milky Way
Sarkar, K. C. (2024) · The Astronomy and Astrophysics Review · doi:10.1007/s00159-024-00152-1 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“The gas settles down to the x 2 orbit and starts forming stars only after reaching a solid body rotation regime where the shear-driven turbulence and angular momentum transport is suppressed (Krumholz & Kruijssen 2015).”
BackgroundZhang, M., Li, Z., & Morris, M. R. (2021) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/abf927 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
- Authors
- Krumholz, M. R., & Kruijssen, J. M. D.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Santa Cruz (US)
- Max Planck Society (DE)
- Corresponding author
- Krumholz, Mark R.
- Venue
- Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2015-08-17
- Volume
- 453
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 739-757
- ISSN
- 0035-8711 (ISSN-L)
- 1365-2966
- OpenAlex
- W2103211077
- Cited by
- 142
- References
- 160
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 10 · 2024: 11 · 2023: 7 · 2022: 11 · 2021: 10 · 2020: 17 · 2019: 14 · 2018: 15 · 2017: 24 · 2016: 16 · 2015: 4
- FWCI
- 11.19
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society (publishedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University) (submittedVersion)
- HighWire Press Open Archive (submittedVersion)
- ANU Open Research (Australian National University) (submittedVersion)
- MPG.PuRe (Max Planck Society) (submittedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation (1066293, 0955300, 1405962)
- Aspen Center for Physics (1066293, PHY-1066293)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Galaxies: Formation, Evolution, Phenomena
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Astrophysical Phenomena and Observations
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Astrophysics and Star Formation Studies
- Keywords
- gas rings, galactic bars, barred spiral galaxies, Central Molecular Zone, Milky Way, gas inflow, angular momentum transport, acoustic instability, inner Lindblad resonance, gas turbulence, gravitational instability, rotation curves, star formation, gas accumulation
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