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Star formation rates and efficiencies in the Galactic Centre
Open accessAbstract
The inner few hundred parsecs of the Milky Way harbours gas densities, pressures, velocity dispersions, an interstellar radiation field and a cosmic ray ionisation rate orders of magnitude higher than the disc; akin to the environment found in star-forming galaxies at high-redshift. Previous studies have shown that this region is forming stars at a rate per unit mass of dense gas which is at least an order of magnitude lower than in the disc, potentially violating theoretical predictions. We show that all observational star formation rate diagnostics - both direct counting of young stellar objects and integrated light measurements - are in agreement within a factor two, hence the low star formation rate is not the result of the systematic uncertainties that affect any one method. As these methods trace the star formation over different timescales, from $0.1 - 5$ Myr, we conclude that the star formation rate has been constant to within a factor of a few within this time period. We investigate the progression of star formation within gravitationally bound clouds on $\sim$ parsec scales and find $1 - 4$ per cent of the cloud masses are converted into stars per free-fall time, consistent with a subset of the considered "volumetric" star formation models. However, discriminating between these models is obstructed by the current uncertainties on the input observables and, most importantly and urgently, by their dependence on ill-constrained free parameters. The lack of empirical constraints on these parameters therefore represents a key challenge in the further verification or falsification of current star formation theories.
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“Henshaw et al. (2022) note that the average SFR in the CMZ over the past ∼ 5 Myr is ∼ 0 . 07 M ⊙ yr -1 , and over the last 5 -100 Myr is ∼ 0 . 09 M ⊙ yr -1 and is almost an order of magnitude smaller than the expected SFR inside the CMZ based on the gas surface density (Longmore et al. 2013; Barnes et al. 2017; Henshaw et al. 2022) or dynamical modeling of the CMZ (Krumholz et al. 2017; Armillotta”
From The Fermi/eROSITA bubbles: a look into the nuclear outflow from the Milky Way (2024) · cites this paper as Barnes et al. 2017
In the citing paper
“Integrated IR emission of star-forming regions (resolved or unresolved) in the CMZ indicates an SFR of ∼ 0 . 1 M ⊙ yr -1 (YusefZadeh et al. 2009; Barnes et al. 2017).”
From The Fermi/eROSITA bubbles: a look into the nuclear outflow from the Milky Way (2024) · cites this paper as Barnes et al. 2017
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“In order to estimate the total SFR across the CMZ, we apply several infrared luminosity-to-star formation rate (luminosity–SFR) relations to the bolometric and monochromatic infrared luminosities (see Kennicutt & Evans 2012, and references therein).”
MethodA synthetic view on structure and evolution of the Milky Way
Robin, A. C., Reylé, C., Derrière, S., & Picaud, S. (2003) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20031117 · Cited by 2,040
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“09 M ⊙ yr − 1 and is almost an order of magnitude smaller than the expected SFR inside the CMZ based on the gas surface density (Longmore et al. 2013; Barnes et al. 2017; Henshaw et al. 2022) or dynamical modeling of the CMZ (Krumholz et al. 2017; Armillotta et al. 2019).”
BackgroundWidespread Presence of Glycolaldehyde and Ethylene Glycol around Sagittarius B2
Li, J., Shen, Z., Wang, J., Chen, X., Li, D., Wu, Y., Dong, J., Zhao, R., Gou, W., Wang, J., et al. (2017) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aa9069 · Cited by 34
An updated stellar census of the Quintuplet cluster
Clark, J. S., Lohr, M. E., Patrick, L. R., Najarro, F., Dong, H., & Figer, D. F. (2018) · Open Research Online - ORO (The Open University) · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201833041/pdf · Cited by 33
3D CMZ. I. Central Molecular Zone Overview
Battersby, C., Walker, D. L., Barnes, A. T., Ginsburg, A. G., Lipman, D., Alboslani, D., Hatchfield, H. P., Bally, J., Glover, S. C. O., Henshaw, J. D., et al. (2025) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/adb5f0 · Cited by 32
Self-citationThe Atacama Cosmology Telescope: Microwave Intensity and Polarization Maps of the Galactic Center
Guan, Y., Clark, S. E., Hensley, B. S., Gallardo, P. A., Næss, S., Duell, C. J., Aiola, S., Atkins, Z., Calabrese, E., Choi, S. K., et al. (2021) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac133f · Cited by 32
Multiscale magnetic fields in the central molecular zone: inference from the gradient technique
Hu, Y., Lazarian, A., & Wang, Q. D. (2022) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stac159 · Cited by 30
Clustered Star Formation in the Center of NGC 253 Contributes to Driving the Ionized Nuclear Wind
Mills, E. A. C., Gorski, M., Emig, K. L., Bolatto, A. D., Levy, R. C., Leroy, A. K., Ginsburg, A. G., Henshaw, J. D., Zschaechner, L. K., Veilleux, S., et al. (2021) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac0fe8 · Cited by 28
Self-citationEibensteiner, C., Barnes, A. T., Bigiel, F., Schinnerer, E., Liu, D., Meier, D. S., Usero, A., Leroy, A. K., Rosolowsky, E. W., Puschnig, J., et al. (2022) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202142624 · Cited by 28
Self-citationTrujillo-Gomez, S., Reina-Campos, M., & Kruijssen, J. M. D. (2019) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stz1932 · Cited by 31
Self-citationStar Formation in Nuclear Rings with the TIGRESS Framework
Moon, S., Kim, W., Kim, C.-G., & Ostriker, E. (2021) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/abfa93 · Cited by 18
The centres of M83 and the Milky Way: opposite extremes of a common star formation cycle
Callanan, D., Longmore, S. N., Kruijssen, J. M. D., Schruba, A., Ginsburg, A. G., Krumholz, M. R., Bastian, N., Alves, J., Henshaw, J. D., Knapen, J. H., et al. (2021) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stab1527 · Cited by 29
Self-citationA massive Keplerian protostellar disk with flyby-induced spirals in the Central Molecular Zone
Lu, X., Li, G.-X., Zhang, Q., & Lin, Y. (2022) · Nature Astronomy · doi:10.1038/s41550-022-01681-4 · Cited by 27
Hatchfield, H. P., Battersby, C., Keto, E., Walker, D., Barnes, A., Callanan, D., Ginsburg, A., Henshaw, J., Kauffmann, J., Kruijssen, J. M. D., et al. (2020) · Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series · doi:10.3847/1538-4365/abb610 · Cited by 18
Self-citationButterfield, N., Chuss, D. T., Guerra, J. A., Morris, M., Paré, D. M., Wollack, E. J., Dowell, C. D., Hankins, M., Karpovich, K., Siah, J., et al. (2024) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad12b9 · Cited by 26
The life cycle of the Central Molecular Zone – II. Distribution of atomic and molecular gas tracers
Armillotta, L., Krumholz, M. R., & Teodoro, E. M. D. (2020) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/staa469 · Cited by 28
The episodic and multiscale Galactic Centre
Bryant, A., & Krabbe, A. (2021) · New Astronomy Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.newar.2021.101630 · Cited by 29
Constraining the population of isolated massive stars within the Central Molecular Zone
Clark, J. S., Patrick, L. R., Najarro, F., Evans, C. J., & Lohr, M. (2021) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202039205 · Cited by 24
Armijos-Abendaño, J., Banda-Barragán, W. E., Martín-Pintado, J., Dénes, H., Federrath, C., & Requena-Torres, M. A. (2020) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/staa3119 · Cited by 24
Excitation and spatial study of a prestellar cluster towards G+0.693-0.027 in the Galactic centre
Colzi, L., Martín-Pintado, J., Zeng, S., Jiménez-Serra, I., Rivilla, V. M., Sanz‐Novo, M., Martín, S., Zhang, Q., & Lu, X. (2024) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202451382 · Cited by 23
Simpson, J. P. (2018) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aab55b · Cited by 24
Deuterium Fractionation as a Multiphase Component Tracer in the Galactic Center
Colzi, L., Martín-Pintado, J., Rivilla, V. M., Jiménez-Serra, I., Zeng, S., Rodríguez-Almeida, L. F., Rico-Villas, F., Martín, S., & Requena-Torres, M. A. (2022) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8213/ac52ac · Cited by 23
Lu, X., Liu, J., Pillai, T., Zhang, Q., Liu, T., Gu, Q., Hasegawa, T., Li, P. S., Tang, X., Hatchfield, H. P., et al. (2024) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad1395 · Cited by 23
SOFIA/FORCAST Galactic Center Legacy Survey: Overview
Hankins, M. J., Lau, R. M., Radomski, J. T., Cotera, A. S., Morris, M. R., Mills, E. A. C., Walker, D. L., Barnes, A. T., Simpson, J. P., Herter, T. L., et al. (2020) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab7c5d · Cited by 22
Self-citationDetection of an excess of young stars in the Galactic Centre Sagittarius B1 region
Nogueras-Lara, F., Schödel, R., & Neumayer, N. (2022) · Nature Astronomy · doi:10.1038/s41550-022-01755-3 · Cited by 22
SOFIA/HAWC+ Far-infrared Polarimetric Large-area CMZ Exploration Survey. III. Full Survey Data Set
Paré, D. M., Butterfield, N., Chuss, D. T., Guerra, J. A., Iuliano, J. I., Karpovich, K., Morris, M., & Wollack, E. J. (2024) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad4462 · Cited by 22
Can Sgr A* flares reveal the molecular gas density PDF?
Churazov, E., Khabibullin, I. I., Sunyaev, R., & Ponti, G. (2017) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stx1855 · Cited by 21
The Turbulent Gas Structure in the Centers of NGC 253 and the Milky Way
Krieger, N., Bolatto, A. D., Koch, E. W., Leroy, A. K., Rosolowsky, E. W., Walter, F., Weiß, A., Eden, D. J., Levy, R. C., Meier, D. S., et al. (2020) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aba903 · Cited by 21
Similar complex kinematics within two massive, filamentary infrared dark clouds
Barnes, A. T., Henshaw, J. D., Caselli, P., Jiménez-Serra, I., Tan, J. C., Fontani, F., Pon, A., & Ragan, S. E. (2018) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/sty173 · Cited by 21
Self-citationZhang, M., Li, Z., & Morris, M. R. (2021) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/abf927 · Cited by 20
A global view on star formation: The GLOSTAR Galactic plane survey
Nguyen, H., Rugel, M. R., Menten, K. M., Brunthaler, A., Dzib, S. A., Yang, A. Y., Kauffmann, J., Pillai, T., Nandakumar, G., Schultheis, M., et al. (2021) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202140802 · Cited by 20
Garay-Solis, Y., Barrera-Ballesteros, J. K., Colombo, D., Sánchez, S. F., Lugo-Aranda, A. Z., Villanueva, V., Wong, T., & Bolatto, A. D. (2023) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/acd781 · Cited by 19
3D CMZ. II. Hierarchical Structure Analysis of the Central Molecular Zone
Battersby, C., Walker, D. L., Barnes, A., Ginsburg, A., Lipman, D., Alboslani, D., Hatchfield, H. P., Bally, J., Glover, S., Henshaw, J., et al. (2025) · Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/adb844 · Cited by 15
Self-citationGieles, M., Padoan, P., Charbonnel, C., Vink, J. S., & Ramírez-Galeano, L. (2025) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/staf1314 · Cited by 31
Molecular Cloud Cores in the Galactic Center 50 km s−1 Molecular Cloud
Uehara, K., Tsuboi, M., Kitamura, Y., Miyawaki, R., & Miyazaki, A. (2019) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aafee7 · Cited by 18
Constraining the population of isolated massive stars within the Central Molecular Zone
Clark, J. S., Patrick, L. R., Najarro, F., Evans, C. J., & Lohr, M. E. (2021) · Open Research Online - ORO (The Open University) · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202039205/pdf · Cited by 19
Metadata
- Authors
- Barnes, A. T., Longmore, S. N., Battersby, C., Bally, J., Kruijssen, J. M. D., Henshaw, J. D., & Walker, D. L.
- Affiliations
- Liverpool John Moores University (GB)
- Center for Astrophysics Harvard & Smithsonian (US)
- University of Colorado Boulder (US)
- Heidelberg University (DE)
- Corresponding author
- Barnes, A. T.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2017-04-21
- Volume
- 469
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 2263-2285
- ISSN
- 0035-8711 (ISSN-L)
- 1365-2966
- OpenAlex
- W2606765257
- Cited by
- 193
- References
- 134
- Citations by year
- 2026: 13 · 2025: 19 · 2024: 26 · 2023: 13 · 2022: 17 · 2021: 24 · 2020: 29 · 2019: 24 · 2018: 21 · 2017: 7
- FWCI
- 12.12
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- arxiv.org
- Locations
- Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society (publishedVersion)
- Liverpool John Moores University (acceptedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University) (submittedVersion)
- Max Planck Institute for Plasma Physics (submittedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University)
- Funders
- Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (KR4801/1-1)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Astrophysics and Star Formation Studies
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Galaxies: Formation, Evolution, Phenomena
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Astrophysical Phenomena and Observations
- Keywords
- Galactic Center, star formation rate, star formation efficiency, dense gas, young stellar objects, integrated light, free-fall time, star formation models, Milky Way
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