Estimating the environmental impacts of global lithium-ion battery supply chain: A temporal, geographical, and technological perspective
Open accessAbstract
A sustainable low-carbon transition via electric vehicles will require a comprehensive understanding of lithium-ion batteries’ global supply chain environmental impacts. Here, we analyze the cradle-to-gate energy use and greenhouse gas emissions of current and future nickel-manganese-cobalt and lithium-iron-phosphate battery technologies. We consider existing battery supply chains and future electricity grid decarbonization prospects for countries involved in material mining and battery production. Currently, around two-thirds of the total global emissions associated with battery production are highly concentrated in three countries as follows: China (45%), Indonesia (13%), and Australia (9%). On a unit basis, projected electricity grid decarbonization could reduce emissions of future battery production by up to 38% by 2050. An aggressive electric vehicle uptake scenario could result in cumulative emissions of 8.1 GtCO2eq by 2050 due to the manufacturing of nickel-based chemistries. However, a switch to lithium iron phosphate-based chemistry could enable emission savings of about 1.5 GtCO2eq. Secondary materials, via recycling, can help reduce primary supply requirements and alleviate the environmental burdens associated with the extraction and processing of materials from primary sources, where direct recycling offers the lowest impacts, followed by hydrometallurgical and pyrometallurgical, reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 61, 51, and 17%, respectively. This study can inform global and regional clean energy strategies to boost technology innovations, decarbonize the electricity grid, and optimize the global supply chain toward a net-zero future.
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Battery material carbon footprint distributions are not systematically integrated into battery carbon footprint analyses.
“Second, battery material CF distributions are not systematically integrated into battery CF analyses.”
From Carbon footprint distributions of lithium-ion batteries and their materials (2024) · cites this paper as [24]
The materials' impact and induced variance on battery carbon footprint have not yet been quantified.
“While initial research has begun to aggregate the CF data points of individual battery materials into a battery-level analysis6,24, the materials’ impact and induced variance on battery CF have not yet been quantified.”
From Carbon footprint distributions of lithium-ion batteries and their materials (2024) · cites this paper as [24]
Graphite and nickel laterite are known to drive the carbon footprint of batteries.
“However, as both materials are known to drive the CF of batteries5,24,34, it was decided to include their emission ranges in the battery CF Monte Carlo simulation based on country-specific secondary literature.”
From Carbon footprint distributions of lithium-ion batteries and their materials (2024) · cites this paper as [24]
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Cites
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- Authors
- Llamas-Orozco, J. A., Meng, F., Walker, G. S., Abdul-Manan, A. F. N., MacLean, H. L., Posen, I. D., & McKechnie, J.
- Affiliations
- University of Nottingham (GB)
- University of Sheffield (GB)
- Saudi Aramco (Saudi Arabia) (SA)
- University of Toronto (CA)
- Corresponding author
- Meng, Fanran
- McKechnie, Jon
- ORCID
- Venue
- PNAS Nexus
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2023-11-01
- Volume
- 2
- Issue
- 11
- Pages
- pgad361-pgad361
- ISSN
- 2752-6542 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC10683946
- OpenAlex
- W4389101515
- Cited by
- 150
- References
- 13
- Citations by year
- 2026: 63 · 2025: 59 · 2024: 28
- FWCI
- 12.48
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- PNAS Nexus (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- White Rose Research Online (University of Leeds, The University of Sheffield, University of York) (submittedVersion)
- Repository@Nottingham (University of Nottingham) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Repository@Nottingham (University of Nottingham) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Science and Technology Council of Mexico
- Saudi Aramco Technologies Company
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Engineering › Environmental Impact and Sustainability
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Mechanical Engineering › Extraction and Separation Processes
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Electric Vehicles and Infrastructure
- Keywords
- lithium-ion batteries, battery supply chain, greenhouse gas emissions, energy consumption, lithium iron phosphate batteries, electricity grid decarbonization, electric vehicles, battery recycling, secondary raw materials, cobalt mining, net-zero transition
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