Cradle-to-Gate Emissions from a Commercial Electric Vehicle Li-Ion Battery: A Comparative Analysis
Abstract
We report the first cradle-to-gate emissions assessment for a mass-produced battery in a commercial battery electric vehicle (BEV); the lithium-ion battery pack used in the Ford Focus BEV. The assessment was based on the bill of materials and primary data from the battery industry, that is, energy and materials input data from the battery cell and pack supplier. Cradle-to-gate greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions for the 24 kWh Ford Focus lithium-ion battery are 3.4 metric tonnes of CO2-eq (140 kg CO2-eq per kWh or 11 kg CO2-eq per kg of battery). Cell manufacturing is the key contributor accounting for 45% of the GHG emissions. We review published studies of GHG emissions associated with battery production to compare and contrast with our results. Extending the system boundary to include the entire vehicle we estimate a 39% increase in the cradle-to-gate GHG emissions of the Focus BEV compared to the Focus internal combustion engine vehicle (ICEV), which falls within the range of literature estimates of 27-63% increases for hypothetical nonproduction BEVs. Our results reduce the uncertainties associated with assessment of BEV battery production, serve to identify opportunities to reduce emissions, and confirm previous assessments that BEVs have great potential to reduce GHG emissions over the full life cycle and provide local emission free mobility.
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The carbon intensity of EV production coalesces around 140 kg CO2/kWh.
“Multiple sources report a range of values for the carbon intensity of EV production [99,105-109]. However, they mostly have the same magnitude and coalesce around 140 kg CO2/kWh, with about 25% of emissions coming from mining to cathode production, 40% from cell production, and the remaining 35% from pack production.”
From Lithium Supply Chain Optimization: A Global Analysis of Critical Minerals for Batteries (2024) · cites this paper as [107]
About 25% of EV production emissions come from mining to cathode production, 40% from cell production, and 35% from pack production.
“Multiple sources report a range of values for the carbon intensity of EV production [99,105-109]. However, they mostly have the same magnitude and coalesce around 140 kg CO2/kWh, with about 25% of emissions coming from mining to cathode production, 40% from cell production, and the remaining 35% from pack production.”
From Lithium Supply Chain Optimization: A Global Analysis of Critical Minerals for Batteries (2024) · cites this paper as [107]
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- Authors
- Kim, H. C., Wallington, T. J., Arsenault, R., Bae, C., Ahn, S., & Lee, J.
- Affiliations
- Ford Motor Company (United States) (US)
- Corporate R&D, LG Chem Research Park, 188, Munji-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, Korea
- LG Chem (South Korea) (KR)
- Corresponding author
- Kim, Hyung Chul
- Venue
- Environmental Science & Technology
- Publisher
- American Chemical Society (ACS)
- Published
- 2016-06-28
- Volume
- 50
- Issue
- 14
- Pages
- 7715-7722
- ISSN
- 0013-936X (ISSN-L)
- 1520-5851
- OpenAlex
- W2425958646
- Cited by
- 312
- References
- 15
- Citations by year
- 2026: 24 · 2025: 28 · 2024: 40 · 2023: 40 · 2022: 33 · 2021: 43 · 2020: 31 · 2019: 35 · 2018: 22 · 2017: 14 · 2016: 1
- FWCI
- 14.99
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Environmental Science & Technology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Ford Motor Company
- LG Chem
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Engineering › Environmental Impact and Sustainability
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Electric Vehicles and Infrastructure
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Engineering › Photovoltaic Systems and Sustainability
- Keywords
- lithium-ion batteries, battery electric vehicles, cradle-to-gate emissions, greenhouse gas emissions, Ford Focus, battery cell manufacturing, battery pack, life cycle assessment, battery manufacturing, CO2 equivalent emissions
- MeSH terms
- Vehicle Emissions, Electricity, Ions, Lithium, Electric Power Supplies, Greenhouse Effect
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