Life cycle analysis of lithium-ion batteries for automotive applications
Open accessAbstract
In light of the increasing penetration of electric vehicles (EVs) in the global vehicle market, understanding the environmental impacts of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) that characterize the EVs is key to sustainable EV deployment. This study analyzes the cradle-to-gate total energy use, greenhouse gas emissions, SOx, NOx, PM10 emissions, and water consumption associated with current industrial production of lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC) batteries, with the battery life cycle analysis (LCA) module in the Greenhouse Gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy Use in Transportation (GREET) model, which was recently updated with primary data collected from large-scale commercial battery material producers and automotive LIB manufacturers. The results show that active cathode material, aluminum, and energy use for cell production are the major contributors to the energy and environmental impacts of NMC batteries. However, this study also notes that the impacts could change significantly, depending on where in the world the battery is produced, and where the materials are sourced. In an effort to harmonize existing LCAs of automotive LIBs and guide future research, this study also lays out differences in life cycle inventories (LCIs) for key battery materials among existing LIB LCA studies, and identifies knowledge gaps.
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Water use during manufacturing is relatively small at this life cycle stage compared to upstream extractive processes and consumes just 7% of the overall embodied water in a lithium-ion battery.
“Water use during manufacturing is relatively small at this life cycle stage compared to upstream extractive processes and consumes just 7% of the overall embodied water in a lithium-ion battery”
From Lithium and water: Hydrosocial impacts across the life cycle of energy storage (2024) · cites this paper as Dai et al., 2019
Section 3.2.3 links substantial battery water consumption to upstream aluminum production and cobalt ore mining and processing. Our copy does not state that manufacturing accounts for 7% of embodied water or quantify its water use relative to those processes. (LLM, conf=0.78)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredOne study found that 50.8% of water use in the life cycle of photovoltaics is in the preparedness of the mining powders.
“One study found that 50.8% of water use in the life cycle of photovoltaics is in the preparedness of the mining powders”
From Lithium and water: Hydrosocial impacts across the life cycle of energy storage (2024) · cites this paper as Dai et al., 2019
Section 3.2.3 discusses water consumption in the lithium-ion battery supply chain, including aluminum and cobalt processing, not photovoltaics. Searches for “50.8%,” photovoltaics, and mining-powder preparation found no passage supporting the claimed percentage or life-cycle stage; page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.76)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe production carbon footprint of a LIB is primarily made up of energy contributions, traced to cathode active material production and cell manufacturing, and material contributions associated with upstream mining/refining of key battery materials.
“The production CF of a LIB is primarily made up of energy contributions, traced to cathode active material production and cell manufacturing, and material contributions associated with upstream mining/refining of key battery materials (Chordia et al., 2021;Dai et al., 2019;Kallitsis et al., 2020).”
From Think global act local: The dependency of global lithium-ion battery emissions on production location and material sources (2024) · cites this paper as Dai et al., 2019
Dai et al. (2019) reported a 72.9 kg CO2-eq kWh-1 for an NMC111 battery produced in the United States, falling within the lower whisker values reported for North America in Fig. 5.
“Dai et al. (2019) reported a 72.9 kg CO 2 -eq kWh -1 for an NMC111 battery produced in the United States, falling within the lower whisker values reported for North America in Fig. 5.”
From Think global act local: The dependency of global lithium-ion battery emissions on production location and material sources (2024) · cites this paper as Dai et al., 2019
The production of battery materials and subsequent LIB cell manufacturing contribute considerably to greenhouse gas emissions.
“the production of battery materials4–7 and the subsequent LIB cell manufacturing8–10 contribute considerably to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions”
From Carbon footprint distributions of lithium-ion batteries and their materials (2024) · cites this paper as [5]
Graphite and nickel laterite are known to drive the carbon footprint of batteries.
“However, as both materials are known to drive the CF of batteries5,24,34, it was decided to include their emission ranges in the battery CF Monte Carlo simulation based on country-specific secondary literature.”
From Carbon footprint distributions of lithium-ion batteries and their materials (2024) · cites this paper as [5]
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- Authors
- Dai, Q., Kelly, J. C., Gaines, L., & Wang, M.
- Affiliations
- Argonne National Laboratory (US)
- Corresponding author
- Dai, Qiang
- Venue
- Batteries
- Publisher
- MDPI AG
- Published
- 2019-06-01
- Volume
- 5
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 48
- ISSN
- 2313-0105 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2947177723
- Cited by
- 491
- References
- 27
- Citations by year
- 2026: 81 · 2025: 86 · 2024: 67 · 2023: 80 · 2022: 79 · 2021: 71 · 2020: 23 · 2019: 3
- FWCI
- 18.65
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- dx.doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Batteries (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- OSTI OAI (U.S. Department of Energy Office of Scientific and Technical Information) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- U.S. Department of Energy (DE-AC02-06CH11357)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Engineering › Environmental Impact and Sustainability
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Mechanical Engineering › Extraction and Separation Processes
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Electric Vehicles and Infrastructure
- Keywords
- lithium-ion batteries, electric vehicles, NCM cathode, life cycle assessment, cradle-to-gate emissions, energy consumption, greenhouse gas emissions, air pollutant emissions, water consumption, battery cell manufacturing, aluminum, GREET model
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