The DOI matches its Crossref record; 80 of the 80 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 3 of the 42 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Race and Economic Opportunity in the United States: an Intergenerational Perspective*
Open accessAbstract
We study the sources of racial disparities in income using anonymized longitudinal data covering nearly the entire U.S. population from 1989 to 2015. We document three results. First, black Americans and American Indians have much lower rates of upward mobility and higher rates of downward mobility than whites, leading to persistent disparities across generations. Conditional on parent income, the black-white income gap is driven by differences in wages and employment rates between black and white men; there are no such differences between black and white women. Hispanic Americans have rates of intergenerational mobility more similar to whites than blacks, leading the Hispanic-white income gap to shrink across generations. Second, differences in parental marital status, education, and wealth explain little of the black-white income gap conditional on parent income. Third, the black-white gap persists even among boys who grow up in the same neighborhood. Controlling for parental income, black boys have lower incomes in adulthood than white boys in 99% of Census tracts. The few areas with small black-white gaps tend to be low-poverty neighborhoods with low levels of racial bias among whites and high rates of father presence among blacks. Black males who move to such neighborhoods earlier in childhood have significantly better outcomes. However, less than 5% of black children grow up in such areas. Our findings suggest that reducing the black-white income gap will require efforts whose impacts cross neighborhood and class lines and increase upward mobility specifically for black men.
Overview
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Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
Using linked Census and tax data covering nearly the entire U.S. population, the paper shows that black and American Indian children have substantially lower intergenerational mobility than white children, while Hispanic children are more similar to whites. The black-white income gap is driven mainly by black men’s lower wages, employment, and related outcomes, persists within neighborhoods, and is not explained by parental marital status, education, or wealth.
Key findings
- Black and American Indian children have rank-rank mobility curves shifted down by about 13 percentiles relative to whites across the parental income distribution; the predicted steady-state black-white household income gap is 19.2 percentiles, close to the observed 20.9-percentile gap.
- The black-white gap in individual income is about 10–11 percentiles for men but roughly 1 percentile higher for black women than white women conditional on parent income; black men have wages about 7 percentiles lower, work about 9 fewer hours per week, and at p=25 are 18.9 percentage points less likely to work than white men.
- Family-level controls explain little: controlling for parental marital status reduces the male intergenerational gap from 10 to 9.3 percentiles, adding education reduces it to 9.1, and wealth proxies reduce it to 8.4; adjusting for total wealth implies 8.0 at p=25.
- Black-white gaps persist within neighborhoods: black boys have lower adult incomes than white boys in 99% of Census tracts, and the gap remains 7.7 percentiles with tract fixed effects and 7.0 with block fixed effects; less than 5% of black children grow up in low-poverty tracts with high black father presence, versus 63% of white children in comparable white-father-presence areas.
Methods
- The analysis links deidentified 2000 and 2010 Census short forms to federal income tax returns from 1989, 1994, 1995, and 1998–2015, plus 2005–2015 ACS data, using Protected Identification Keys.
- The primary sample is children in the 1978–1983 birth cohorts, about 20 million children or 94% of the target frame; child income is mean household or individual income in 2014–2015, and parent income is mean household income from 1994–1995 and 1998–2000.
- The paper estimates race-specific rank-rank intergenerational mobility, uses fixed effects for commuting zones, Census tracts, and blocks, and applies a timing-of-move design to study childhood exposure effects.
Limitations
- The paper states that steady-state predictions assume race-specific mobility rates remain constant and should be interpreted as benchmarks, not actual forecasts; it also states that father-presence and racial-bias results are correlational and do not establish causal effects.
- The paper notes that wealth is measured only through proxies, that IAT participation is voluntary and may be selected, and that unauthorized immigrants are excluded from the sample.
- Evident from the text: the black-white analysis is prioritized because sample sizes for American Indians are much smaller, and the neighborhood analyses rely on observational variation except where the mover design is used.
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Claims the paper makes
135 Own result · 86 Own interpretation · 23 No basis given · 14 No full text of the sources · 13 Sources not found · 6 Own method · 3 Not checked yet · 2 Partly supported · 1 Supported · accuracy not yet measured
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“It is well known that blacks marry at much lower rates than whites (e.g., Raley, Sweeney, and Wondra 2015).”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > V. MARRIAGE RATES AND GENDER HETEROGENEITY
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Raley, Sweeney, and Wondra 2015 source
The “Contemporary Differences” section states that black Americans have lower marriage rates at all ages than other racial and ethnic groups, including whites. It also reports that fewer than two-thirds of black women had married by their early 40s, compared with nearly nine in ten white women. (LLM, conf=0.94)
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In the paper
“Controlling for marital status has a larger effect when we do not control for parent income, reducing the unconditional black-white gap from 17.6 to 13.3 percentiles (Online Appendix Figure VII), consistent with Autor et al. (2019).”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > VI. FAMILY-LEVEL FACTORS
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Autor et al. (2019) sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The cited paper reports that accounting for maternal education and marital status reduces the black–white difference in the boy–girl high-school graduation gap (Section 3.2, p. 21). That supports a general connection between family structure and racial differences in outcomes, but it does not establish the citing sentence’s income-control comparison or its 17.6-to-13.3-percentile estimate; the sentence attributes that estimate to its own Online Appendix Figure VII. (LLM, conf=0.84)
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In the paper
“The finding that neighborhood effects on racial gaps are proportional to childhood exposure is consistent with prior evidence documenting the emergence of racial gaps in achievement in childhood (Fryer and Levitt 2004) and the importance of pre-labor-market measures in explaining racial gaps in labor market outcomes (Neal and Johnson 1996; Altonji and Blank 1999; Fryer 2010).”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > 3. Results.
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Fryer and Levitt 2004 source
Split into 2 atoms — 2 confirmed, 0 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
- Not matchedcites Neal and Johnson 1996; Altonji and Blank 1999; Fryer 2010
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
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In the paper
“Controlling for parental marital status reduces black-white intergenerational gaps for men only slightly, from 10 percentiles to 9.3 percentiles.”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > I. INTRODUCTION
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In the paper
“First, even among women born to high-income parents-for whom employment rates are around 90%-wages are very similar for blacks and whites.”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > V. MARRIAGE RATES AND GENDER HETEROGENEITY
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In the paper
“Among children with parents at the 25th percentile, the black-white gap in high school completion rates is 3.5 percentage points for women versus 8.3 percentage points for men (Figure VII, Panels A and B).”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > V. MARRIAGE RATES AND GENDER HETEROGENEITY
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In the paper
“We find substantial variation across tracts within CZs in both black and white boys' outcomes.”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > I. INTRODUCTION
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In the paper
“Black father presence at the neighborhood level strongly predicts black boys' outcomes irrespective of whether their own father is present, echoing the findings of Sampson (1987).”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > I. INTRODUCTION
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Sampson (1987) source
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In the paper
“Third, the black-white gap persists even among boys who grow up in the same neighborhood.”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > Abstract
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In the paper
“But Hispanics' current income distributions are closer to those of blacks and Americans Indians than whites (Online Appendix Figure II).”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > IV.B. American Indians, Hispanics, and Asians
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In the paper
“These childhood exposure effects are race-specific: black movers' outcomes are predicted by the outcomes of other black residents, but not white residents.”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > I. INTRODUCTION
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In the paper
“The same qualitative pattern holds among Hispanics, blacks, and whites as well, as shown in Online Appendix Figure III, although the gap between natives and immigrants is significantly smaller for Hispanics than the other groups.”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > IV.B. American Indians, Hispanics, and Asians
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In the paper
“The intercept for whites is α w = 36.8;that is, white children born to the lowest-income parents reach the 36.8thpercentile on average.”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > IV.A. Blacks versus Whites
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In the paper
“Second, we continue to find smaller intergenerational gaps for women and large intergenerational gaps for men for outcomes that are observed for everyone, such as educational attainment.”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > V. MARRIAGE RATES AND GENDER HETEROGENEITY
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In the paper
“Second, the fraction of fathers present in low-income black households in the neighborhood is associated with better outcomes among black boys, but is uncorrelated with the outcomes of black girls and white boys.”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > I. INTRODUCTION
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In the paper
“Of those with nonmissing race information, 67% are white, 14% are black, 13% are Hispanic, 3% are Asian, and 0.8% are American Indian.”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > III.C. Summary Statistics
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In the paper
“We find analogous gender differences in other outcomes as well: black-white gaps in high school dropout rates, college attendance rates, occupation, and incarceration are all substantially larger for men than for women.”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > I. INTRODUCTION
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In the paper
“The mean rank of black children in the 1978-1983 birth cohorts is 34.8, while the mean rank of white children is 55.7.”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > IV.A. Blacks versus Whites
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In the paper
“Among parents, median household income is $70,640 for whites, $29,200 for blacks, $33,060 for Hispanics, $53,010 for Asians, and $34,850 for American Indians.”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > III.C. Summary Statistics
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In the paper
“Blacks have relative mobility comparable to whites (β b = 0.28), but have uniformly lower rates of absolute mobility across the entire parental income distribution.”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > IV.A. Blacks versus Whites
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In the paper
“Conditional on parental income, black men have wages that are about 7 percentiles lower than white males, and work roughly nine fewer hours per week on average.”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > V. MARRIAGE RATES AND GENDER HETEROGENEITY
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In the paper
“However, black-white gaps are larger on average for boys who grow up in such neighborhoods because the correlation between growing up in a good (e.g., low-poverty) area and income is greater for white boys than black boys.”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > I. INTRODUCTION
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In the paper
“CZs that have higher rates of upward mobility for whites (e.g., the Great Plains) tend to have higher rates of upward mobility for blacks as well, with the notable exception of the Southeast, where whites have especially low rates of upward mobility but blacks do not.”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > I. INTRODUCTION
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In the paper
“Moreover, there is little or no gap in wage rates or hours of work between black and white women, weighing against the hypothesis that black women have comparable incomes to white women solely because they work longer hours to compensate for lower levels of spousal income.”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > I. INTRODUCTION
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In the paper
“Black men with parents at the 25th percentile are 18.9 percentage points less likely to work in a given year than white men, whereas black men with parents at the 75th percentile are 11.4 percentage points less likely to work than white men.”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > V. MARRIAGE RATES AND GENDER HETEROGENEITY
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In the paper
“The corresponding gaps in college attendance rates are 2.8 percentage points for women and 6.5 percentage points for men (Figure VII, Panels C and D).”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > V. MARRIAGE RATES AND GENDER HETEROGENEITY
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“Hence, the observed unconditional black-white gap in the current generation is 20.9 percentiles, very similar to the predicted steady-state gap of 19.2 percentiles.”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > IV.A. Blacks versus Whites
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In the paper
“For example, among children with parents in the bottom quintile, 10.6% of white children rise up to the top quintile, but only 2.5% of black children do (Table I; see the Online Data Tables for quintile transition matrices by race and ethnicity).”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > IV.A. Blacks versus Whites
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In the paper
“Conditional on parental income, black and white women have very similar wage rates, hours of work, and employment rates.”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > V. MARRIAGE RATES AND GENDER HETEROGENEITY
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In the paper
“There are 21.3 million children in our analysis sample, of whom 94% have nonmissing information on race (Online Appendix Table II).”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > III.C. Summary Statistics
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In the paper
“Asian children have high levels of income across the parental income distribution; even Asian children born to the lowest-income parents reach the 51st percentile of the national income distribution on average.”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > IV.B. American Indians, Hispanics, and Asians
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In the paper
“Pooling all races, we obtain an estimate of relative mobility of β = 0.35 in our analysis sample (Online Appendix Figure I), very similar to the estimate of β = 0.34 reported by Chetty et al. (2014a, Figure IIa) based purely on tax records.”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > IV. INTERGENERATIONAL MOBILITY BY RACE
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Chetty et al. (2014a)
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In the paper
“Less than 5% of black children currently grow up in a Census tract with a poverty rate below 10% and more than half of black fathers present.”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > I. INTRODUCTION
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In the paper
“Notably, 10.3% of black men in our sample of children were incarcerated on April 1, 2010 (between ages of 27 and 32), a far higher rate than for any of the other subgroups.”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > III.C. Summary Statistics
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Black men, by contrast, have substantially lower employment rates and wage rates than white men, even conditional on parental income.”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > I. INTRODUCTION
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“First, black men who grow up in tracts with less racial bias among whites (measured using tests for implicit bias or indices of explicit racial animus based on Google searches) earn more and are less likely to be incarcerated.”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > I. INTRODUCTION
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For men, the gap in incarceration is particularly striking: 21% of black men born to the lowest-income families are incarcerated on a given day, as compared with 6% of white men.”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > I. INTRODUCTION
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Conditional on parent income, the black-white income gap is driven by differences in wages and employment rates between black and white men; there are no such differences between black and white women.”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > Abstract
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Finally, using the methodology of Chetty and Hendren (2018a), we show that black boys who move to better areas (as measured by the outcomes of other black residents) earlier in their childhood have higher incomes and lower rates of incarceration in adulthood.”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > I. INTRODUCTION
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Chetty and Hendren (2018a)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The median household income among children in 2014-2015 (between the ages of 31 and 37) is $53,730 for whites, $20,650 for blacks, $35,180 for Hispanics, $63,720 for Asians, and $22,260 for American Indians.”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > III.C. Summary Statistics
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast, 63% of white children live in areas with poverty rates below 10% and more than half of white fathers present.”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > I. INTRODUCTION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is particularly noteworthy that high school completion and college attendance rates are uniformly higher for black women than for white men across the parental income distribution.”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > V. MARRIAGE RATES AND GENDER HETEROGENEITY
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The relationship between children's expected ranks and parents' ranks is linear across almost the entire parental income distribution but is convex in the upper tail (top 5%).”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > IV.A. Blacks versus Whites
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As with the IAT results, these associations are not gender-or race-specific: low-income black women and white men who grow up in areas with more explicit racial animus have lower incomes (columns (7) and ( 8)).”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > FIGURE XII Black-White Gaps versus Father Presence by Census Tract
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Intuitively, both black and white boys have higher incomes in low-poverty areas, but the effect of growing up in a low-poverty area is larger for whites than blacks.”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > FIGURE X Correlations between Upward Mobility and Tract-Level Characteristics
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Because of this differential effect by race, the black-white intergenerational gap is 6.1 percentiles in tracts with the highest levels of black father presence, compared with 9.3 percentiles in the tracts with the lowest levels of father presence.”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > 4. Father Presence.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“black children have rates of relative mobility comparable to whites: they are not stuck at the same income levels as their parents.”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > VIII. CONCLUSION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For example, black men have the highest rates of upward mobility in Silver Spring in the Washington DC metro area as well as parts of Queens in New York.”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > 3. Characteristics of Neighborhoods with Smaller Intergenerational Gaps.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“4.2% of black children currently grow up in Census tracts with a poverty rate below 10 percent and more than half of black fathers present (Figure XIV).”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > VII.D. Summary: Environment Matters, but Good Environments Are Rare
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Hispanics have relatively high rates of absolute upward mobility and are moving up significantly in the income distribution across generations, despite having incomes similar to blacks today.”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > VIII. CONCLUSION
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Column (7) shows that when we include both black father presence and black male presence in the regression, black father presence remains just as predictive as in column (6), whereas black male presence is not significantly related to black boys' outcomes.”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > FIGURE XII Black-White Gaps versus Father Presence by Census Tract
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We do find, however, that white women are less likely than black women to hold jobs that pay traditional wage earnings (reported on form W-2) and are more likely to earn income of other forms (e.g., reported on form 1099) conditional on parental income.”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > V. MARRIAGE RATES AND GENDER HETEROGENEITY
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The estimate increases by 0.01 because we measure children's incomes at slightly older ages in this article (ages 31-37 versus ages 29-32), reducing the amount of life cycle bias.”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > VIII. CONCLUSION
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Black and American Indian children have substantially lower rates of upward mobility and higher rates of downward mobility than white children.”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > VIII. CONCLUSION
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“0.2% of white males were incarcerated, whereas 2.2% of black males were incarcerated-the same rate as for white boys who grew up in families at the 34th percentile of the parental income distribution.”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > V. MARRIAGE RATES AND GENDER HETEROGENEITY
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Asian children whose mothers were born in the United States have outcomes very similar to white children (Figure III, Panel B), whereas those whose mothers were born outside the United States have much better outcomes than white children (Figure III, Panel C).”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > VIII. CONCLUSION
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“0.2% of white males were incarcerated, whereas 2.2% of black males were incarcerated-the same rate as for white boys who grew up in families at the 34th percentile of the parental income distribution.”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > V. MARRIAGE RATES AND GENDER HETEROGENEITY
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The quote only partly states this claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“At the 25th percentile, the intergenerational gap for men falls from 10 to 9.3 percentiles; at the 75th percentile, it falls from 11.7 to 11.4 percentiles.”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > VI. FAMILY-LEVEL FACTORS
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Column (3) shows that the results are very similar when we include state fixed effects.”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > FIGURE XII Black-White Gaps versus Father Presence by Census Tract
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Controlling for parental education in addition to marital status reduces the gap for men to 9.1 percentiles at p = 25; at p = 75, the gap remains unchanged at 11.4 percentiles.”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > VI. FAMILY-LEVEL FACTORS
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“62.5% of white children grow up in low-poverty areas with more than half of white fathers present.”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > VII.D. Summary: Environment Matters, but Good Environments Are Rare
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We find that the estimated exposure effects are very similar to those in our baseline specifications (see Online Appendix G for details).”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > 3. Results.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Black father presence predicts boys' employment rates but not girls' employment rates.”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > FIGURE XII Black-White Gaps versus Father Presence by Census Tract
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The adjustment for imperfect measurement of wealth in the ACS reduces the black-white income gap given parents at the 25th percentile to 8.0 percentiles, a 0.4 percentile reduction relative to the estimate that controls only for the ACS wealth proxies.”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > 19. In Online Appendix Figures
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We also find that the occupational distributions of black and white women are similar conditional on parental income (Online Appendix Figure IV), suggesting that black women are not substituting toward occupations with lower amenities to obtain higher wages.”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > V. MARRIAGE RATES AND GENDER HETEROGENEITY
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Column (2) shows that the pattern is driven by the presence of low-income black fathers, not white fathers; including both variables in the regression yields a coefficient of 0.045 (std.err.= 0.0068) on the presence of low-income black fathers and 0.0077 (std.err.= 0.0076) for white fathers.”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > FIGURE XII Black-White Gaps versus Father Presence by Census Tract
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Differences in economic outcomes by race have persisted for centuries in the United States and continue up to the present day (Myrdal 1944; Duncan 1968; Margo 2016).”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > I. INTRODUCTION
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Myrdal 1944
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Duncan 1968
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Margo 2016 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Our primary analysis sample consists of 20 million children, approximately 94% of the total number of children in the birth cohorts we study.”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > I. INTRODUCTION
plainn = 20- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“one encouraging result is that interventions that reduce α could lead to rapid reductions in racial disparities across generations because blacks have fairly high rates of relative mobility (low β r ).”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > IV.A. Blacks versus Whites
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Bond et al. (2014) show that PIK rates vary slightly across population subgroups in the 2010 ACS but exceed 85% in virtually all subgroups.”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > II.D. Changes in Mobility over Time
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Bond et al. (2014)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The differences in mean ranks between black and white children arise from the fact that blacks have much lower rates of upward mobility than whites and much higher levels of downward mobility (Hertz 2005; Bhattacharya and Mazumder 2011).”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > IV.A. Blacks versus Whites
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Hertz 2005
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Bhattacharya and Mazumder 2011 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As a result, the predicted steady-state mean rank for American Indians is 36.5, similar to that for blacks.”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > IV.B. American Indians, Hispanics, and Asians
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Rates of intergenerational mobility remain constant across generations.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Hence, unlike blacks and American Indians, Hispanics are on an upward trajectory across generations and may close most of the gap between their incomes and those of whites, as shown in Figure II, Panel B.”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > IV.B. American Indians, Hispanics, and Asians
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Rates of intergenerational mobility remain constant across generations.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Our analysis sample covers approximately 94% of our target sample frame and has income distributions and demographic characteristics very similar to the ACS (Online Appendix Tables III and IV), confirming that it provides an accurate representation of our target population.”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > III.A. Sample Definition
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“The finding that black-white racial gaps in individual income are substantially larger for men than women is consistent with prior literature showing that black-white wage disparities are smaller for women than men in the cross-section (Darity, Guilkey, and Winfrey 1996; Neal and Johnson 1996; Altonji and Blank 1999; Bayard et al. 1999; Blau 2012).”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > V. MARRIAGE RATES AND GENDER HETEROGENEITY
What the sources say
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These differences in household income are partly driven by differences in marriage rates: 79.3% of white children grow up in two-parent households, compared with 32.2% of black children.”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > III.C. Summary Statistics
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Individuals recorded as having zero income in the tax records (because they do not file and have no W-2s) have a median income of $5,000 in the ACS, showing that tax records do not miss substantial amounts of income for nonfilers.”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > III.C. Summary Statistics
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We find that the tax-and Census-data based measures of parents are well aligned: for instance, among the children claimed as dependents by parents on a 1040 tax form in 2000, 93% live with the same parents in the 2000 Census.”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > III.B. Variable Definitions
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although steady-state outcomes and convergence rates depend on many additional factors in such models, rates of intergenerational income mobility (α r , β r ) continue to play a central role and thus remain of interest.”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > II.D. Changes in Mobility over Time
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“One interpretation of the results in Figure V is that blackwhite gaps in labor market opportunities are small for women, but large for men.”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > V. MARRIAGE RATES AND GENDER HETEROGENEITY
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We conclude that neighborhoods with low poverty rates, high rates of father presence among blacks, and low levels of racial bias among whites have better outcomes for black boys and smaller racial gaps.”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > I. INTRODUCTION
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“As noted, prior work has established that the average level of β pooling all races is approximately 0.35 in the United States, but there is less evidence on how β r varies by race (Mazumder 2014).”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > II.C. General Case
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Mazumder 2014
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Policies that reduce residential segregation or enable black and white children to attend the same schools without achieving racial integration within neighborhoods and schools would also likely leave much of the gap in place, since the gap persists even among low-income children raised on the same block.”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > VIII. CONCLUSION
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Prior work has shown that exposure to racial bias during childhood adversely affects black youth, especially black boys, in school (e.g., Simpson and Erickson 1983; Chavous et al. 2008).”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > FIGURE XII Black-White Gaps versus Father Presence by Census Tract
What the sources say
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“It is also consistent with evidence from the Moving to Opportunity experiment showing that moving to a low-poverty neighborhood as a young child significantly increases income for both blacks and whites, whereas moving as an adult does not (Chetty, Hendren, and Katz 2016).”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > 3. Results.
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Chetty, Hendren, and Katz 2016 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In addition, we show that places have causal effects not just on the level of outcomes but also on the gap in outcomes across races.”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > 3. Results.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: The potential outcomes of children who move to better versus worse areas do not vary with the age at which they move.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We conclude based on the preceding analysis that the blackwhite intergenerational gap in individual income is substantial for men, but quite small for women.”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > V. MARRIAGE RATES AND GENDER HETEROGENEITY
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Hence, the association with father presence is driven by a characteristic of the neighborhood in which the child grows up and is not simply a direct effect of the marital status of one's own parents, consistent with Sampson (1987).”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > FIGURE XII Black-White Gaps versus Father Presence by Census Tract
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Sampson (1987) source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Intuitively, this is because low-income families hold the majority of their wealth in the illiquid assets that are captured in the ACS.”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > 19. In Online Appendix Figures
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Hence, we cannot be certain that there is no difference in labor market opportunities for black and white women conditional on parental income; however, the data do strongly suggest that the black-white gap in opportunities is much larger for men than women.”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > V. MARRIAGE RATES AND GENDER HETEROGENEITY
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Instead, it points to channels that affect black boys in particular, such as mentoring by black male role models in the community or differences in the treatment of black boys in communities with high rates of black father presence.”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > FIGURE XII Black-White Gaps versus Father Presence by Census Tract
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Hence, what matters is the fraction of low-income fathers in the tract where the child grows up even holding fixed where they live as adults, ruling out the possibility that the same factors that affect black father presence directly affect black boys' outcomes.”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > FIGURE XII Black-White Gaps versus Father Presence by Census Tract
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We do not include one-time movers when constructing these exposureweighted outcomes to ensure that a child's own outcome does not enter our definition of neighborhood quality; see Online Appendix G for details.”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > VIII. CONCLUSION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“The black-white gap in wage rates may understate the true gap in potential wages if black women with lower wage opportunities are less likely to be employed (Heckman, Lyons, and Todd 2000).”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > V. MARRIAGE RATES AND GENDER HETEROGENEITY
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Heckman, Lyons, and Todd 2000 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The authors state this as an assumption.
Each family consists of a single individual in each generation.
“For simplicity, assume that each family, indexed by i, consists of a single individual in each generation t.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
The idiosyncratic shock ε i,t is independent across generations and has expectation zero.
“where ε i, t denotes an idiosyncratic shock that is independent across generations and has expectation E[ε i,t ] = 0.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
α r and β r do not vary across generations.
“We assume that α r and β r do not vary across generations.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
Intergenerational mobility for each race is constant over time.
“Our model's steady-state predictions assume that intergenerational mobility for each race is constant over time.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
Rates of intergenerational mobility remain constant across generations.
“Under the assumption that rates of mobility remain constant across generations, we can predict how the black-white disparity will evolve across generations using the model in Section II.”
“As noted in Section II, these steady-state predictions assume that mobility rates do not change across generations.”
“assuming constant mobility across generations”
The authors state this as an assumption.
The assumptions of the model in Section II hold.
“For example, under the assumptions of the model in Section II, if black children's mean ranks were increased by 13 percentiles at all levels of parental income, the unconditional black-white income gap would fall to just 2.7 percentiles within two generations.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
The potential outcomes of children who move to better versus worse areas do not vary with the age at which they move.
“We can interpret differences in the coefficients b m , for example, b mb m + 1 , as the causal effect of exposure to a better area (i.e., an area with higher observed incomes) under the assumption that the potential outcomes of children who move to better versus worse areas do not vary with the age at which they move.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“The relationship between children's and parents' income ranks is flatter than inChetty et al. (2014a) andChetty et al. (2020) because we measure children's income at age 27, compared to ages 29-30 inChetty et al. (2014a) and ages 31-37 inChetty et al. (2020).”
From Changing Opportunity: Sociological Mechanisms Underlying Growing Class Gaps and Shrinking Race Gaps in Economic Mobility (2024) · cites this paper as Chetty et al. (2020)
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > 2. Black-White Gaps Are Larger in "Good" Neighborhoods.
“Figure X, Panel A plots the correlation between a selected subset of tract-level characteristics and the mean individual income ranks of black boys (solid circles) and white boys (open circles)”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > FIGURE X Correlations between Upward Mobility and Tract-Level Characteristics
“Panel A presents tract-level correlations between various characteristics and upward mobility for black men (hollow circles) and white men (solid circles)”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > IV.B. American Indians, Hispanics, and Asians
“Hispanic parents and children in our sample have a mean rank of 36.2 and 45.7 percentiles, respectively.”
§ RACE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES: AN INTERGENERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE * > III.C. Summary Statistics
“Panel B: Children's household income in adulthood Median income ($) 53,730 20,650 63,720 35,180 22,260 Mean percentile rank 55.7 34.8 60.7 45.6 36.7”
Citations
Cites
Neighborhoods and Violent Crime: A Multilevel Study of Collective Efficacy
Sampson, R. J., Raudenbush, S. W., & Earls, F. (1997) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.277.5328.918 · Cited by 11,999
Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: the implicit association test
Greenwald, A. G., McGhee, D. E., & Schwartz, J. L. K. (1998) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.74.6.1464 · Cited by 9,210
Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans.
Steele, C. M., & Aronson, J. (1995) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.69.5.797 · Cited by 9,020
American Apartheid: Segregation and the Making of the Underclass.
Fernandez, R. M., Massey, D. S., & Denton, N. A. (1993) · Contemporary Sociology A Journal of Reviews · doi:10.2307/2074502 · Cited by 6,191
The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner City, The Underclass, and Public Policy.
Watson, B. C., & Wilson, W. J. (1988) · The Journal of Negro Education · doi:10.2307/2295455 · Cited by 6,018
Bertrand, M., & Mullainathan, S. (2004) · American Economic Review · doi:10.1257/0002828042002561 · Cited by 4,504
Assessing “Neighborhood Effects”: Social Processes and New Directions in Research
Sampson, R. J., Morenoff, J. D., & Gannon-Rowley, T. (2002) · Annual Review of Sociology · doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.28.110601.141114 · Cited by 4,074
Where is the land of Opportunity? The Geography of Intergenerational Mobility in the United States *
Chetty, R., Hendren, N., Kline, P., & Saez, E. (2014) · The Quarterly Journal of Economics · doi:10.1093/qje/qju022 · Cited by 2,922
Self-citationPager, D. (2003) · American Journal of Sociology · doi:10.1086/374403 · Cited by 2,840
Chetty, R., Hendren, N., & Katz, L. F. (2016) · American Economic Review · doi:10.1257/aer.20150572 · Cited by 2,315
Self-citation
Research works printed but not linked: 4
- Duncan, 1968, “Inheritance of Poverty or Inheritance of Race?,”, On Understanding Poverty: Perspectives from the Social Sciences, 85
- Hertz, 2005, “Rags, Riches, and Race: The Intergenerational Economic Mobility of Black and White Families in the United States,”, 165
- U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 2003, “Chapter 5, Sample Design and Estimation; 2000 Census of Population and Housing: Public-use Microdata Samples Technical Documentation,”
- U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 2014, “American Community Survey Design and Methodology (January 2014); Chapter 4: Sample Design and Selection,”
Cited by
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Metadata
- Authors
- Chetty, R., Hendren, N., Jones, M. R., & Porter, S. R.
- Affiliations
- National Bureau of Economic Research (US)
- United States Census Bureau (US)
- Venue
- The Quarterly Journal of Economics
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2019-12-26
- Volume
- 135
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 711-783
- ISSN
- 0033-5533 (ISSN-L)
- 1531-4650
- OpenAlex
- W3123816425
- Cited by
- 842
- References
- 71
- Citations by year
- 2026: 101 · 2025: 127 · 2024: 150 · 2023: 129 · 2022: 135 · 2021: 116 · 2020: 54 · 2019: 21
- FWCI
- 163.76
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- The Quarterly Journal of Economics (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Intergenerational and Educational Inequality Studies
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Income, Poverty, and Inequality
- Social Sciences › Economics, Econometrics and Finance › Economics and Econometrics › Labor market dynamics and wage inequality
- Keywords
- intergenerational mobility, black-white income gap, Native Americans, upward mobility, downward mobility, neighborhood effects, racial bias, father presence, parental income, Black men, economic opportunities
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-11-04, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-11-04 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Cited sources are checked with a language model’s help (gpt-6-sol).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
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