Cited by 1,574Child Abuse and TraumaChild Welfare and AdoptionChild and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development

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Validity of the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire in an Adolescent Psychiatric Population

BERNSTEIN, DAVID P., AHLUVALIA, TARUNA, POGGE, DAVID, HANDELSMAN, LEONARD·1997·Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry

DOI 10.1097/00004583-199703000-00012

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Abstract

Objective To present initial findings on the validity of a recently developed maltreatment inventory, the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ), in a sample of adolescent psychiatric patients.Method Three hundred ninety-eight male and female adolescents (aged 12 to 17 years) admitted to the inpatient service of a private psychiatric hospital were given the CTQ as part of a larger test battery. Structured interviews were also conducted with the primary therapists of 190 of the patients to obtain ratings of abuse and neglect based on all available data, including clinical interviews with patients and their relatives and information from referring clinicians and agencies.Results Principal-components analysis of the CTQ items yielded five rotated factors-emotional abuse, emotional neglect, sexual abuse, physical abuse, and physical neglect-closely replicating the factor structure in an earlier study of adult patients. The internal consistency of the CTQ factors was extremely high both in the entire sample and in every subgroup examined. When CTQ factor scores were compared with therapists' ratings in a series of logistic regression analyses, relationships between the two sets of variables were highly specific, supporting the convergent and discriminant validity of the CTQ. Finally, when therapists' ratings were used as the validity criterion, the CTQ exhibited good sensitivity for all forms of maltreatment, and satisfactory or better levels of specificity.Conclusions These initial findings suggest that the CTQ is a sensitive and valid screening questionnaire for childhood trauma in an adolescent psychiatric inpatient setting.

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Gabalda, M. K., Thompson, M. P., & Kaslow, N. J. (2009) · Journal of Family Issues · doi:10.1177/0192513x09348488 · Cited by 41
Impact of childhood trauma and affective temperament on resilience in bipolar disorder
Kesebir, S., Ünübol, B., YAYLACI, E. T., Gündoğar, D., & Ünübol, H. (2015) · International Journal of Bipolar Disorders · doi:10.1186/s40345-015-0023-3 · Cited by 44
“CTQ was developed by Bernstein et al. (1997) to evaluate the existence and type of childhood traumas.”
Short‐term and long‐term measures of cortisol in saliva and hair in atypical and non‐atypical depression
Herane-Vives, A., de Angel, V., Papadopoulos, A. S., Wise, T., Chua, K., Strawbridge, R., Castillo, D., Arnone, D., Young, A. H., & Cleare, A. J. (2018) · Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica · doi:10.1111/acps.12852 · Cited by 43
Childhood maltreatment and alcohol use in young adulthood: the role of self-regulation processes
Shin, S. H., Jiskrova, G. K., & Wills, T. A. (2019) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2018.11.006 · Cited by 41
Interplay between pro-inflammatory cytokines, childhood trauma, and executive function in depressed adolescents
Peters, A. T., Ren, X., Bessette, K. L., Goldstein, B. I., West, A. E., Langenecker, S. A., & Pandey, G. N. (2019) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2019.03.030 · Cited by 41
Heightened amygdala reactivity and increased stress generation predict internalizing symptoms in adults following childhood maltreatment
Gerin, M. I., Viding, E. M., Pingault, J., Puetz, V. B., Knodt, A. R., Radtke, S. R., Brigidi, B. D., Swartz, J. R., Hariri, A. R., & McCrory, E. J. P. (2019) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.13041 · Cited by 46
Childhood Trauma and Stressful Life Events Are Independently Associated with Sleep Disturbances in Adolescents
Baddam, S. K. R., Olvera, R. L., Canapari, C. A., Crowley, M. J., & Williamson, D. E. (2019) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs9100108 · Cited by 41
“It is pertinent to note that childhood trauma scores in this sample were comparable to a community sample [61] and were lower than an adolescent psychiatric inpatient population [45], suggesting that the association of childhood trauma to sleep exists even at lower levels of trauma.”
Result
A Comparison of Life Events in Adolescents with Major Depression, Borderline Personality Disorder and Matched Controls: A Pilot Study
Horesh, N., Ratner, S., Laor, N., & Toren, P. (2008) · Psychopathology · doi:10.1159/000141925 · Cited by 41
Understanding the “ghosts in the nursery” of pregnant women experiencing domestic violence: Prenatal maternal representations and histories of childhood maltreatment
Malone, J. C., Levendosky, A. A., Dayton, C. J., & Bogat, G. A. (2010) · Infant Mental Health Journal · doi:10.1002/imhj.20264 · Cited by 41
Self-rated childhood emotional neglect and CSF monoamine indices in abstinent cocaine-abusing adults: possible implications for suicidal behavior.
Roy, A. (2002) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/s0165-1781(02)00176-2 · Cited by 42
A Typology of Male Prisoners Making Near-Lethal Suicide Attempts
Rivlin, A., Ferris, R., Marzano, L., Fazel, S., & Hawton, K. E. (2013) · Crisis · doi:10.1027/0227-5910/a000205 · Cited by 43
Childhood Maltreatment and Conduct Disorder: Independent Predictors of Adolescent Substance Use Disorders in Youth with ADHD
Sanctis, V. A. D., Trampush, J. W., Harty, S. C., Marks, D. J., Newcorn, J., Miller, C., & Halperin, J. (2008) · Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology · doi:10.1080/15374410802359650 · Cited by 38
Beyond physiological hypoarousal: The role of life stress and callous-unemotional traits in incarcerated adolescent males
Gostisha, A. J., Vitacco, M. J., Dismukes, A. R., Brieman, C. L., Merz, J., & Shirtcliff, E. A. (2014) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2014.03.016 · Cited by 47
Prevalence of Maltreatment Among Youths in Public Sectors of Care
Miller, E. A., Green, A. E., Fettes, D. L., & Aarons, G. A. (2011) · Child Maltreatment · doi:10.1177/1077559511415091 · Cited by 40
Evidence That the Impact of Childhood Trauma on IQ Is Substantial in Controls, Moderate in Siblings, and Absent in Patients With Psychotic Disorder
van Os, J., Marsman, A., van Dam, D., Simons, C. J. P., & GROUP Investigators (2016) · Schizophrenia Bulletin · doi:10.1093/schbul/sbw177 · Cited by 48
Associations Between Childhood Trauma and the Age of First-Time Drug Use in Methamphetamine-Dependent Patients
Huang, C., Yuan, Q., Zhang, L., Wang, L., Cui, S., Zhang, K., & Zhou, X. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2021.658205 · Cited by 42
Exposure to Violence as an Environmental Pathway Linking Low Socioeconomic Status with Altered Neural Processing of Threat and Adolescent Psychopathology
Weissman, D. G., Rosen, M. L., Colich, N. L., Sambrook, K., Lengua, L. J., Sheridan, M. A., & McLaughlin, K. A. (2022) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn_a_01825 · Cited by 46
“The CTQ has excellent psychometric properties including internal consistency, test–retest reliability, and convergent and discriminant validity with interviews and clinician reports of maltreatment (Bernstein et al., 1994, 1997).”
Method
Internalizing symptoms and rumination: The prospective prediction of familial and peer emotional victimization experiences during adolescence
Shapero, B. G., Hamilton, J. L., Liu, R. T., Abramson, L. Y., & Alloy, L. B. (2013) · Journal of Adolescence · doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2013.08.011 · Cited by 45
Reflective function mediates the relationship between emotional maltreatment and borderline pathology in adolescents: A preliminary investigation
Quek, J., Newman, L. K., Bennett, C., Gordon, M. S., Saeedi, N., & Melvin, G. A. (2017) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2017.08.008 · Cited by 39
Emotion Regulation Processes and Psychoform and Somatoform Dissociation in Adolescents and Young Adults with Cumulative Maltreatment
Henschel, S., Doba, K., & Nandrino, J.-L. (2019) · Journal of Trauma & Dissociation · doi:10.1080/15299732.2018.1502714 · Cited by 39
Child Maltreatment and Recidivism among Adolescent Detainees
Kingree, J. B., Phan, D., & Thompson, M. P. (2003) · Criminal Justice and Behavior · doi:10.1177/0093854803256460 · Cited by 39
Factorial validity of the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire in Italian psychiatric patients
Innamorati, M., Erbuto, D., Venturini, P., Fagioli, F., Ricci, F., Lester, D., Amore, M., Girardi, P., & Pompili, M. (2016) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2016.08.044 · Cited by 39
“, 1994) or a five-factor structure (with the split of Physical and Emotional Abuse into two separate factors) (Bernstein et al., 1997).”
Background
Childhood Maltreatment, Automatic Negative Thoughts, and Resilience: The Protective Roles of Culture and Genes
Yu, M., Huang, L., Mao, J., Gese, D. N. A., & Luo, S. (2020) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/0886260520912582 · Cited by 43
“The Childhood Trauma Questionnaire Short Form (CTQ-SF; Bernstein et al., 1997; Zhao et al., 2005) assessed the childhood traumatic experience.”
Method
Dynamic Alterations in Neural Networks Supporting Aversive Learning in Children Exposed to Trauma: Neural Mechanisms Underlying Psychopathology
DeCross, S. N., Sambrook, K., Sheridan, M. A., Tottenham, N., & McLaughlin, K. A. (2021) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2021.09.013 · Cited by 42
Temperament and Maltreatment in the Emergence of Borderline and Antisocial Personality Pathology during Early Adolescence.
Jovev, M., McKenzie, T., Whittle, S., Simmons, J. G., Allen, N. B., & Chanen, A. M. (2013) · Europe PMC (PubMed Central) · Cited by 39
Characteristics of HIV patients who attempt suicide
Roy, A. (2003) · Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica · doi:10.1034/j.1600-0447.2003.02033.x · Cited by 39
Heterogeneity of posttraumatic stress symptoms in a highly traumatized low income, urban, African American sample
Nugent, N. R., Koenen, K. C., & Bradley, B. (2012) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2012.07.012 · Cited by 41
Psychophysiology and posttraumatic stress disorder symptom profile in pregnant African-American women with trauma exposure
Michopoulos, V., Rothbaum, A. O., Corwin, E. J., Bradley, B., Ressler, K. J., & Jovanović, T. (2014) · Archives of Women s Mental Health · doi:10.1007/s00737-014-0467-y · Cited by 40
Cross-species evidence for the role of interleukin-33 in depression risk.
Kudinova, A. Y., Deak, T., Hueston, C. M., McGeary, J. E., Knopik, V. S., Palmer, R. H. C., & Gibb, B. E. (2016) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/abn0000158 · Cited by 38
“This said, this measure has shown excellent reliability and validity (Bernstein et al., 1997), and is commonly used in studies testing G×E models of risk (e.g. Bradley et al., 2014), facilitating comparisons between studies.”
The intervening role of urgency on the association between childhood maltreatment, PTSD, and substance-related problems
Mirhashem, R., Allen, H. C., Adams, Z. W., van Stolk‐Cooke, K., Legrand, A. C., & Price, M. (2017) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2017.02.012 · Cited by 42
Determinants of suboptimal medication adherence in patients with a major depressive episode
Baeza‐Velasco, C., Olié, É., Béziat, S., Guillaume, S., & Courtet, P. (2018) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.22852 · Cited by 40
The roles of early-life adversity and rumination in neural response to emotional faces amongst anxious and depressed adults
Peters, A. T., Burkhouse, K. L., Kinney, K. L., & Phan, K. L. (2018) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291718003203 · Cited by 41
“Consistent with previous studies (Bernstein et al., 1997; Walker et al., 1999; Bernstein et al., 2003; Gibb et al., 2009; Johnson et al., 2011; Bevilacqua et al., 2012; Lu et al., 2013; Kudinova et al., 2015), the cut-offs of each subscale for moderate exposure which best differentiate clinically significant adversity…”
BackgroundMethod
Somatic symptoms in treatment‐naïve Hispanic and non‐Hispanic patients with major depression
Dunlop, B. W., Still, S., LoParo, D., Aponte‐Rivera, V., Johnson, B. N., Schneider, R. L., Nemeroff, C. B., Mayberg, H. S., & Craighead, W. E. (2019) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.22984 · Cited by 43
Childhood trauma, parental bonding, and social cognition in patients with schizophrenia and healthy adults
Rokita, K., Dauvermann, M. R., Mothersill, D., Holleran, L., Holland, J. F., Costello, L., Cullen, C., Kane, R., McKernan, D. P., Morris, D. W., et al. (2020) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.23023 · Cited by 38

Authors: BERNSTEIN, D. P., AHLUVALIA, T., POGGE, D., & HANDELSMAN, L.
Affiliations: Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai (US)
Fairleigh Dickinson University (US)
Corresponding author: BERNSTEIN, DAVID P.
ORCID: BERNSTEIN, DAVID P.
Venue: Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 1997-03
Volume: 36
Issue: 3
Pages: 340-348
ISSN: 0890-8567 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1097/00004583-199703000-00012
OpenAlex: W2009780891
Cited by: 1,574
References: 25
Citations by year: 2026: 66 · 2025: 107 · 2024: 112 · 2023: 105 · 2022: 131 · 2021: 93 · 2020: 105 · 2019: 97 · 2018: 76 · 2017: 69 · 2016: 69 · 2015: 59 · 2014: 67 · 2013: 60 · 2012: 47
FWCI: 15.25
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
www.elsevier.com/legal/tdmrep-license (tdm)
Locations: Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child Abuse and Trauma
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Child Welfare and Adoption
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
Keywords: Childhood Trauma Questionnaire, child abuse, adolescent psychiatric inpatients, factor structure, convergent and discriminant validity, emotional abuse, emotional neglect, sexual abuse, physical abuse, physical neglect, abuse screening, therapist ratings
MeSH terms: Adolescent, Mental Disorders, Child, Child Abuse, Child Abuse, Sexual, Female, Humans, Male, Surveys and Questionnaires, Sensitivity and Specificity, Reproducibility of Results, Logistic Models

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Validity of the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire in an Adolescent Psychiatric Population

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