Maternal Depression and Comorbidity: Predicting Early Parenting, Attachment Security, and Toddler Social-Emotional Problems and Competencies
Abstract
Objective To examine relations between maternal depression (in pure and comorbid forms) and mother-infant interactions, infant attachment, and toddler social-emotional problems and competencies. A second objective was to explore sex differences.Method Sixty-nine mother-infant dyads were followed from pregnancy to 30 months postpartum. Depression was measured at multiple times with self-report and interview assessments. Play was assessed at 4 months and attachment status at 14 months postpartum. At 30 months, mothers completed the Child Behavior Checklist and Infant-Toddler Social and Emotional Assessment.Results Lifetime maternal depression predicted less optimal mother-infant interactions and insecure infant attachment. However, this "depression effect" was accounted for by mothers with comorbid diagnoses, who had less optimal interactions, and infants with higher rates of insecurity than either mothers with depression only or mothers with no psychopathology. Prenatal and postpartum depressive symptoms were associated with problem behaviors and lower competencies for boys. In contrast, quality of early interactions predicted problem behaviors in girls.Conclusions It is important to examine the context of maternal depression with respect to additional psychopathology and environmental risks. Maternal depression in the presence of other psychopathology confers risk to the mother-child dyad. Consistent with previous work, risk pathways appear to differ for boys and girls. Early identification and prevention efforts are warranted.
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Untreated PPD seems to have negative consequences for both infants and mothers.
“Untreated PPD seems to have negative consequences for both infants and mothers.”
From Consequences of maternal postpartum depression: A systematic review of maternal and infant outcomes (2019) · cites this paper as [11]
Nonsystematic reviews have indicated that the risks to children of untreated depressed mothers, compared to mothers without PPD, include poor cognitive functioning, behavioral inhibition, emotional maladjustment, violent behavior, externalizing disorders, and psychiatric and medical disorders in adolescence.
“Nonsystematic reviews have indicated that the risks to children of untreated depressed mothers (compared to mothers without PPD) include problems such as poor cognitive functioning, behavioral inhibition, emotional maladjustment, violent behavior, externalizing disorders, and psychiatric and medical disorders in adolescence.5,10–17”
From Consequences of maternal postpartum depression: A systematic review of maternal and infant outcomes (2019) · cites this paper as [11]
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- Authors
- CARTER, A. S., GARRITY-ROKOUS, F. E., CHAZAN-COHEN, R., LITTLE, C., & BRIGGS-GOWAN, M. J.
- Affiliations
- University of Massachusetts Boston (US)
- Yale University (US)
- Corresponding author
- CARTER, ALICE S.
- ORCID
- CARTER, ALICE S.
- Venue
- Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2001-01
- Volume
- 40
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 18-26
- ISSN
- 0890-8567 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W1969332816
- Cited by
- 537
- References
- 56
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 14 · 2023: 17 · 2022: 20 · 2021: 13 · 2020: 15 · 2019: 25 · 2018: 34 · 2017: 21 · 2016: 31 · 2015: 31 · 2014: 30 · 2013: 27 · 2012: 32
- FWCI
- 17.82
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (5r03mh049684-02)
- National Institute of Mental Health (MH 49684)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Maternal Mental Health During Pregnancy and Postpartum
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Attachment and Relationship Dynamics
- Keywords
- maternal depression, comorbidities, mother-infant interaction, infant attachment, insecure attachment, sex differences, antenatal depression, postpartum depression, mother-child dyads, child behavior problems
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Affective Symptoms, Child, Preschool, Depressive Disorder, Female, Forecasting, Humans, Infant, Male, Mother-Child Relations, Self Concept, Social Behavior Disorders, Social Support, Comorbidity, Parenting, Infant Behavior
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