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Mental Health Treatment Seeking Among Older Adults With Depression: The Impact of Stigma and Race
Open accessAbstract
Objective Stigma associated with mental illness continues to be a significant barrier to help seeking, leading to negative attitudes about mental health treatment and deterring individuals who need services from seeking care. This study examined the impact of public stigma (negative attitudes held by the public) and internalized stigma (negative attitudes held by stigmatized individuals about themselves) on racial differences in treatment-seeking attitudes and behaviors among older adults with depression.Method Random digit dialing was utilized to identify a representative sample of 248 African American and white older adults (older than 60 years) with depression (symptoms assessed by the Patient Health Questionnaire-9). Telephone-based surveys were conducted to assess their treatment-seeking attitudes and behaviors and the factors that impacted these behaviors.Results Depressed older adult participants endorsed a high level of public stigma and were not likely to be currently engaged in or did they intend to seek mental health treatment. Results also suggested that African American older adults were more likely to internalize stigma and endorsed less positive attitudes toward seeking mental health treatment than their white counterparts. Multiple regression analysis indicated that internalized stigma partially mediated the relationship between race and attitudes toward treatment.Conclusion Stigma associated with having a mental illness has a negative influence on attitudes and intentions toward seeking mental health services among older adults with depression, particularly African American elders. Interventions to target internalized stigma are needed to help engage this population in psychosocial mental health treatments.
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“Perceived stigma has been demonstrated to be related to willingness to receive mental health services among members of traditionally underserved populations such as African Americans and older adults (Conner et al., 2010).”
From Using Mindfulness- and Acceptance-Based Treatments With Clients From Nondominant Cultural and/or Marginalized Backgrounds: Clinical Considerations, Meta-Analysis Findings, and Introduction to the Special Series (2013) · cites this paper as Conner et al., 2010
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Self-citationBrohan, E., Gauci, D., Sartorius, N., & Thornicroft, G. (2010) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2010.09.001 · Cited by 284
“Conner and colleagues reported mean ISMI (including SR) as 2.14 (SD=0.36), when calculated in this way our score is 2.07 (SD=0.50) (Conner et al., 2010).”
BackgroundInfluentialThe Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act
Pearlman, S. A. (2013) · Journal of the American Psychiatric Nurses Association · doi:10.1177/1078390313511852 · Cited by 266
“Furthermore, it also removes a great deal of the stigma from treatment for mental illness, which is currently a significant obstacle to care (C. Brown et al., 2010; Conner et al., 2010; Cummings, Lucas, & Druss, 2013).”
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Eylem, Ö., de Wit, L. M., van Straten, A., Steubl, L., Melissourgaki, Z., Danışman, G. T., de Vries, R., Kerkhof, A. J. F. M., Bhui, K. S., & Cuijpers, P. J. (2020) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-020-08964-3 · Cited by 288
“Some studies indicate that diagnosis of a CMD would reinforce the label indicating that the individual falls out of the societal expectations and therefore is unpredictable and/or dangerous (8-5271).”
BackgroundPerspectives on perceived stigma and self-stigma in adult male patients with depression
Látalová, K., Kamarádová, D., & Praško, J. P. (2014) · Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment · doi:10.2147/ndt.s54081 · Cited by 287
“This scale focuses on the patient’s subjective experience by offering for endorsement statements like “I am embarrassed and ashamed to have mental illness”.(10) The Self-Stigma of Seeking Help Scale is a 10-item instrument using a 5-point Likert-type scale to assess agreement or disagreement with statements like “it w…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialMental health stigma update: a review of consequences
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“The finding on Black men is not new: African Americans are less likely to report worse mental health outcomes (Conner et al., 2010; Snowden, 1999, 2001), and this may be due to differences in reporting, rather than underlying differences in mental health.”
BackgroundDisentangling self-stigma: Are mental illness and help-seeking self-stigmas different?
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Low use of mental health services among older Americans with mood and anxiety disorders
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Stigmatizing attitudes toward mental illness among racial/ethnic older adults in primary care
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“This is in contrast to a prior study that found that older African-Americans were more likely to experience stigma about mental illness than their White counterparts (Conner et al., 2010).”
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Stuber, J., Rocha, A., Christian, A. M., & Link, B. G. (2014) · Psychiatric Services · doi:10.1176/appi.ps.201300136 · Cited by 161
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“Once again, these findings have been supported in previous studies (e.g., Conner et al., 2010; Hackler et al., 2010).”
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“Perceived stigma has been demonstrated to be related to willingness to receive mental health services among members of traditionally underserved populations such as African Americans and older adults (Conner et al., 2010).”
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Vasiliadis, H., Dionne, P.-A., Préville, M., Gentil, L., Berbiche, D., & Latimer, E. A. (2013) · American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jagp.2012.12.016 · Cited by 140
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“…patterns of older African-Americans, research suggests that depressed African-American elders are less likely than their White counterparts to be currently in treatment, to intend to seek treatment in the future, or to have ever sought mental health treatment for depression (Conner et al., 2010).”
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“Stigma can be divided into internal or external, in which external stigma refers to the public’s unfavorable views, attitudes, and perceptions about mental illness, that contribute to stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination towards people with mental health conditions [21].”
BackgroundRacial and Ethnic Disparities in Depression Care in Community-Dwelling Elderly in the United States
Akıncıgil, A., Olfson, M., Siegel, M. J., Zurlo, K. A., Walkup, J. T., & Crystal, S. (2011) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.2011.300349 · Cited by 128
A Systematic Review of Barriers Faced by Older Adults in Seeking and Accessing Mental Health Care
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“Internalized stigma also makes people with mental illness reluctant to seek or remain in treatment [10, 25].”
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“…suggesting that stigma adversely affects treatment seeking attitudes and behaviors as well as acceptability of mental health services (Brown et al., 2010; Conner et al., 2010; Conner, Koeske, & Brown, in press; Conner & Rosen, 2008; Corrigan, 2004, 2007; McCarthy, 2001; Sirey et al., 2001; Vogel.”
BackgroundResultSelf-citationPositive and negative religious coping as predictors of distress among minority older adults
O’Brien, B., Shrestha, S., Stanley, M. A., Pargäment, K. I., Cummings, J. P., Kunik, M. E., Fletcher, T. L., Cortes, J., Ramsey, D. J., & Amspoker, A. B. (2018) · International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry · doi:10.1002/gps.4983 · Cited by 124
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“Since mental health problems are often stigmatized (Conner et al. 2010; Graham et al. 2003), especially the older population should be encouraged to reach out for help or to seek mental health treatment if necessary.”
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“more negative attitudes toward and less intentions to seek psychological services for many different forms of therapy, including individual counseling (Conner et al., 2010; Vogel et al., 2007) career counseling (Ludwikowski, Vogel, & Armstrong, 2009), and group counseling (Vogel, Shechtman, & Wade, 2010).”
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“Some studies suggest that, in general, African Americans have less positive attitudes toward mental health services ( Conner et al, 2009 ; Dadfar & Freindlander, 1982 ; Delphin & Rollock, 1995 ), yet others suggest no differences ( Furnham & Andrew, 1996 ; Hall & Tucker, 1985 ), and still others suggest that, before s…”
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“Negative attitudes can also lead to employment and housing discrimination (e.g., Weiss, Ramakrishna, & Somma, 2006), and lead people with mental illnesses to avoid seeking much-needed treatment for their disorders (e.g., Conner et al., 2010).”
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Krakauer, R. L., Stelnicki, A. M., & Carleton, R. N. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00949 · Cited by 82
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“For instance, as social stigma surrounding mental health has been lessening in the relatively recent past, it could be that older adults, relative to their younger counterparts, might underreport depressive symptoms or avoid treatment entirely (Conner et al., 2010).”
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“Researchers have successfully used Facebook to recruit a vast array of populations who experience stigma or discrimination due to their country of origin [11,12], race or ethnicity [13,14], sexual orientation [15,16], health behaviors [17,18] or mental health status [19,20].”
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“In addition, stigma associated with mental health has been found to impact help seeking behaviours among a range of population groups [50–52], including women experiencing postnatal depression [53, 54].”
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“In the CFA, except for the IPQ-R subscale of biological and physiological causes, items from each subscale of IPQ-R, two subscales of the Stigma and Acceptance Scale Mak, Wong, & Chong, 2013), and the Social Distance Scale (Corrigan et al., 2002) were grouped into three parcels to account for each construct. The parce…”
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“Similarly, the influence of family shame on unwillingness to use mental health services demonstrates the importance of a more Eastern philosophy (Cardemil et al. 2015; Conner et al. 2010).”
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“…to prior research indicating that women tend to have more positive views of those with mental illnesses, while certain non-white populations tend to have more negative views of those with mental illnesses (Conner et al., 2010; Ewalds-Kvist et al., 2013; Holzinger et al., 2012; Rao et al., 2007).”
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“…associated with individuals’ social relationships, social support, psychological well-being, and ability to access medical care (Bos, Schaalma, & Pryor, 2008; Chesney & Smith, 1999; Conner et al., 2010; Mak et al., 2007; Mawar, Sahay, Pandit, & Mahajan, 2005; Rüsch, Angermeyer, & Corrigan, 2005).”
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“Also, another study indicated that internalized stigma exacerbated racial disparities in behaviors of seeking medical treatment (Conner et al., 2010).”
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Health-Related Internet Use in Older Primary Care Patients
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Self-citationLate-life depressive symptoms: Prediction models of change
García‐Peña, C., Wagner, F. A., Sánchez‐García, S., Espinel-Bermúdez, C., Juárez‐Cedillo, T., Pérez‐Zepeda, M. U., Arango-Lopera, V. E., Franco‐Marina, F., Ramírez‐Aldana, R., & Gallo, J. J. (2013) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2013.05.007 · Cited by 54
“…of the multiple physical problems, and comorbidities; moreover, health care professionals often conclude that depressive symptoms are a normal consequence of these problems, an attitude that is often shared by the patients themselves (stigma) (Conner et al., 2010; Perez-Zepeda et al., 2012).”
BackgroundNowotny, K. M., Cepeda, A., James‐Hawkins, L., & Boardman, J. D. (2015) · Journal of Aging and Health · doi:10.1177/0898264315614007 · Cited by 55
“, 2006), and lower intentions toward seeking mental health services (Conner et al., 2010) for older Blacks compared with Whites.”
BackgroundLin, C., Oveisi, S., Burri, A. V., & Pakpour, A. H. (2017) · Epilepsy & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yebeh.2017.01.010 · Cited by 53
“Self-stigma describes a set of negative attitudes toward help seeking [33,34] and may restrict an individual's motivation to change the situation or work on a problem [35–37].”
Telementoring Primary Care Clinicians to Improve Geriatric Mental Health Care
Fisher, E. M., Hasselberg, M. J., Conwell, Y., Weiss, L., Padrón, N. A., Tiernan, E., Karuza, J., Donath, J., & Pagán, J. A. (2017) · Population Health Management · doi:10.1089/pop.2016.0087 · Cited by 52
He, Z.-F., Tan, W., Ma, H., Shuai, Y., Shan, Z., Zhai, J., Qiu, Y., Zeng, H., Chen, X., Wang, S., et al. (2023) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2023.11.022 · Cited by 57
Jain, G., Pareek, S., & Carlbring, P. (2024) · Internet Interventions · doi:10.1016/j.invent.2024.100745 · Cited by 61
“Around 70 % of those with mental illnesses globally don't receive formal treatment, due to various reasons including stigma and a perceived lack of need (Wang et al., 2007; Mojtabai et al., 2011; Conner et al., 2010).”
BackgroundLee, P.-T., Dakin, E. K., & McLure, M. (2015) · Health & Social Care in the Community · doi:10.1111/hsc.12201 · Cited by 50
“Older adults may have particularly high identified stigma in relation to mental health concerns (Conner et al. 2010), and stigma has been found to be a barrier to people receiving mental health services (Vogel et al. 2009).”
BackgroundJames, B. O., Omoaregba, J. O., & Okogbenin, E. O. (2012) · Mental Illness · doi:10.4081/mi.2012.e8 · Cited by 50
McGregor, B. S., Li, C., Baltrus, P., Douglas, M. D., Hopkins, J. M., Wrenn, G. L., Holden, K. B., Respress, E., & Gaglioti, A. H. (2020) · Psychiatric Services · doi:10.1176/appi.ps.201900407 · Cited by 50
Burnett-Zeigler, I. E., Satyshur, M. D., Hong, S., Yang, A., T. Moskowitz, J., & Wisner, K. L. (2016) · Complementary Therapies in Clinical Practice · doi:10.1016/j.ctcp.2016.08.007 · Cited by 45
Woodward, A. T. (2011) · Race and Social Problems · doi:10.1007/s12552-011-9049-z · Cited by 48
Racial/Ethnic Disparities in Depression and Its Theoretical Perspectives
Kim, M. (2013) · Psychiatric Quarterly · doi:10.1007/s11126-013-9265-3 · Cited by 48
“These negative attitudes regarding mental health services affected their never having sought mental health treatment [13].”
BackgroundPolitical attitudes as predictors of the multiple dimensions of mental health stigma
DeLuca, J. S., Vaccaro, J., Seda, J., & Yanos, P. T. (2018) · International Journal of Social Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/0020764018776335 · Cited by 48
“…other less consistent covariates, the relationship between age and MH stigma appears to differ by stigma dimension studied, whereby younger age has predicted more intended social distance (DeLuca, 2014) and older age has been related to less willingness to seek MH treatment (Conner et al., 2010).”
BackgroundMenberu, M., Mekonen, T., Azale, T., Ayano, G., Yimer, S., Getnet, A., Belete, A., Kerie, S., & Fekadu, W. (2018) · Annals of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12991-018-0205-3 · Cited by 47
Jester, D. J., Kohn, J. N., Tibiriçá, L., Thomas, M. L., Brown, L., Murphy, J. D., & Jeste, D. V. (2023) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.20220158 · Cited by 48
Mental Health and Substance Abuse Treatment Stigma Among Soldiers
Olmsted, K. R., Brown, J. M., Vandermaas-Peeler, J. R., Tueller, S., Johnson, R. E., & Gibbs, D. A. (2011) · Military Psychology · doi:10.1080/08995605.2011.534414 · Cited by 46
“Studies with both military and civilian populations have illustrated that those with higher levels of mental health symptoms (i.e., those with more symptoms or more severe symptomatology) report the greatest concerns regarding stigma (Conner et al., 2010; Hoge et al., 2004; Kessler et al., 2001).”
BackgroundStigma, mental illness & ethnicity: Time to centre racism and structural stigma
Kapadia, D. (2023) · Sociology of Health & Illness · doi:10.1111/1467-9566.13615 · Cited by 59
“…that many of the solutions to the theorised stigma problem for ethnic minority people with mental illness are targeted at changing attitudes towards stigma in these populations or tailoring anti-stigma campaigns (Conner et al., 2010; Eylem et al., 2020) specifically for ethnic minority groups.”
BackgroundSirey, J. A., Franklin, A. J., McKenzie, S., Ghosh, S., & Raue, P. J. (2014) · Psychiatric Services · doi:10.1176/appi.ps.201200530 · Cited by 45
Briggs, R., Tobin, K., Kenny, R. A., & Kennelly, S. (2018) · International Psychogeriatrics · doi:10.1017/s104161021700299x · Cited by 44
Du, N., Chong, E. S. K., Wei, D., Liu, Z., Mu, Z., Deng, S., & Huang, Y. (2023) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2023.04.013 · Cited by 47
Pharmacist training in suicide prevention
Painter, N. A., Kuo, G. M., Collins, S. P., Palomino, Y. L., & Lee, K. C. (2018) · Journal of the American Pharmacists Association · doi:10.1016/j.japh.2017.12.007 · Cited by 45
Barriers and facilitators to depression screening in older adults: a qualitative study
Colligan, E. M., Cross-Barnet, C., Lloyd, J. T., & McNeely, J. (2020) · Aging & Mental Health · doi:10.1080/13607863.2018.1531376 · Cited by 42
“For AfricanAmericans, mistrust of the medical system and poor patient-provider communication serve as additional barriers to seeking treatment for depressive symptoms (Conner et al., 2010; Jimenez, Bartels, & Alegria, 2013; Sirey, Franklin, McKenzie, Ghosh, & Raue, 2014).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialA mixed-methods study of social identities in mental health care among LGBTQ young adults of color.
Moore, K. L., Camacho, D., & Spencer-Suarez, K. N. (2021) · American Journal of Orthopsychiatry · doi:10.1037/ort0000570 · Cited by 42
Tanner, E. K., Martinez, I. L., & Harris, M. (2014) · Geriatric Nursing · doi:10.1016/j.gerinurse.2014.04.006 · Cited by 42
Choi, N. G., DiNitto, D. M., & Marti, C. N. (2015) · American Journal on Addictions · doi:10.1111/ajad.12225 · Cited by 46
A Qualitative Study of Black Women’s Experiences in Drug Abuse and Mental Health Services
Jones, L. V., Hopson, L. M., Warner, L., Hardiman, E. R., & James, T. (2014) · Affilia · doi:10.1177/0886109914531957 · Cited by 49
“…specialty mental health or substance abuse services and to be currently in treatment (Anderson et al., 2006; Borum, 2012; Brown & Palenchar, 2004; Conner et al., 2010; Davis & Ancis, 2012; Mays, Caldwell, & Jackson, 1996; Neal-Barnett & Crowther, 2000; Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services…”
BackgroundStorm Impact and Depression Among Older Adults Living in Hurricane Sandy–Affected Areas
Sirey, J. A., Berman, J., Halkett, A. E., Giunta, N., Kerrigan, J., Raeifar, E., Artis, A. S., Banerjee, S., & Raue, P. J. (2016) · Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness · doi:10.1017/dmp.2016.189 · Cited by 41
“For older adults in particular, stigma remains a significant barrier to seeking mental health care, notwithstanding logistical challenges such as transportation and limited finances.(42,67,68) By bringing an array of outreach activities, educational talks, and health-related programming directly to senior center membe…”
BackgroundStark, A., Kaduszkiewicz, H., Stein, J., Maier, W., Heser, K., Weyerer, S. B., Werle, J., Wiese, B., Mamone, S., König, H., et al. (2018) · BMC Family Practice · doi:10.1186/s12875-017-0684-3 · Cited by 50
Merritt, M. M., McCallum, T., & Fritsch, T. (2010) · American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/jgp.0b013e3181eaffa4 · Cited by 42
“Higher ADL scores were correlated with longer duration of caregiving (r[52] = 0.”
BackgroundAn Exploratory Study of Attitudes Toward Psychological Help Seeking Among African American Men
Cadaret, M. C., & Speight, S. L. (2018) · Journal of Black Psychology · doi:10.1177/0095798418774655 · Cited by 53
Packness, A., Halling, A., Simonsen, E. H., Waldorff, F. B., & Hastrup, L. H. (2019) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2018-023844 · Cited by 40
“It could be argued that older people may be more reluctant to use MHC and feel more stigmatised by the need for psychotherapy.(43) 44 We did not find support for this as the Retired group did not differ in perception of Stigma from employed persons.”
BackgroundHow well do older adults recognise mental illness? A literature review
Malkin, G., Hayat, T., Amichai‐Hamburger, Y., Ben‐David, B. M., Regev, T., & Nakash, O. (2019) · Psychogeriatrics · doi:10.1111/psyg.12427 · Cited by 40
Racial disparities in patient selection for liver transplantation: An ongoing challenge
Jesse, M. T., Abouljoud, M. S., Goldstein, E. D., Rebhan, N., Ho, C., Macaulay, T., Bebanic, M., Shkokani, L., Moonka, D., & Yoshida, A. (2019) · Clinical Transplantation · doi:10.1111/ctr.13714 · Cited by 39
Clary, K. L., Pena, S., & Smith, D. C. (2021) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-021-01768-7 · Cited by 39
“year-old veterans (Conner et al., 2010), those who have been involved in combat in either Iraq or Afghanistan while serving in the Army or Marines (Hoge et al.”
BackgroundSystematic Review and Meta-analysis of Outcome after Mild Traumatic Brain Injury in Older People
Hume, C. H., Wright, B. J., & Kinsella, G. (2021) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617721000795 · Cited by 41
“…explanations for age effects on psychological well-being include generational differences surrounding perceived stigma of mental disorders (Conner et al., 2010), possibly resulting in an unwillingness to report (or even an inability to identify) symptoms of psychological distress…”
BackgroundPreferences for Depression Treatment Among Elderly Home Health Care Patients
Raue, P. J., Weinberger, M. I., Sirey, J. A., Meyers, B. S., & BRUCE, M. L. (2011) · Psychiatric Services · doi:10.1176/ps.62.5.pss6205_0532 · Cited by 38
“Also consistent with this finding, self-stigma but not public stigma was associated with attitudes about mental health treatment among diverse community-dwelling older adults (32).”
Park, S. J., Jeon, H. J., Kim, J. Y., Kim, S., & Roh, S. (2014) · BMC Health Services Research · doi:10.1186/s12913-014-0645-7 · Cited by 36
“Differences in MHS use between the age group Regarding the difference in MHS use between the age groups, some previous studies have produced varying results among the adolescent, middle-aged, and elderly [10,11,16,18,20,31,32], while others have found that age was not associated with MHS use [27].”
BackgroundResult
Metadata
- Authors
- Conner, K. O., Copeland, V. C., Grote, N. K., Koeske, G., Rosen, D., Reynolds, C. F., & Brown, C.
- Affiliations
- University of Pittsburgh (US)
- University of Washington (US)
- Corresponding author
- Conner, Kyaien O.
- Venue
- The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2010-06
- Volume
- 18
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 531-543
- ISSN
- 1064-7481 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC2875324
- OpenAlex
- W1990523273
- Cited by
- 568
- References
- 133
- Citations by year
- 2026: 25 · 2025: 34 · 2024: 39 · 2023: 54 · 2022: 37 · 2021: 52 · 2020: 37 · 2019: 45 · 2018: 40 · 2017: 40 · 2016: 24 · 2015: 40 · 2014: 34 · 2013: 28 · 2012: 16
- FWCI
- 27.85
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- D-Scholarship@Pitt (University of Pittsburgh) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (K23MH067595, P30-MH 71944, P30MH071944, K23MH090151)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Mental Health Treatment and Access
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychology and Mental Health
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender Roles and Identity Studies
- Keywords
- mental health treatment seeking, depression, older adults, public stigma, self-stigma, racial differences, African American older adults, help-seeking attitudes, help-seeking intentions, mental health stigma
- MeSH terms
- Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Attitude to Health, Black or African American, Depression, Female, Humans, Male, Mental Health Services, Middle Aged, Patient Acceptance of Health Care, Stereotyping, White People
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