Safe for Generations to Come: Considerations of Safety for Millimeter Waves in Wireless Communications
Open accessAbstract
With the increasing demand for higher data rates and more reliable service capabilities for wireless devices, wireless service providers are facing an unprecedented challenge to overcome a global bandwidth shortage. Early global activities on beyond fourth-generation (B4G) and fifth-generation (5G) wireless communication systems suggest that millimeter-wave (mmWave) frequencies are very promising for future wireless communication networks due to the massive amount of raw bandwidth and potential multigigabit-per-second (Gb/s) data rates [1]?[3]. Both industry and academia have begun the exploration of the untapped mmWave frequency spectrum for future broadband mobile communication networks. In April 2014, the Brooklyn 5G Summit [4], sponsored by Nokia and the New York University (NYU) WIRELESS research center, drew global attention to mmWave communications and channel modeling. In July 2014, the IEEE 802.11 next-generation 60-GHz study group was formed to increase the data rates to over 20 Gb/s in the unlicensed 60-GHz frequency band while maintaining backward compatibility with the emerging IEEE 802.11ad wireless local area network (WLAN) standard [5].
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Previous reviews have reported studies investigating frequencies above 6 GHz that show effects, although many of the reported effects occurred at levels greater than the ICNIRP guidelines.
“Previous reviews have reported studies investigating frequencies above 6 GHz that show effects although many of the reported effects occurred at levels greater than the ICNIRP guidelines [1, 8].”
From 5G mobile networks and health—a state-of-the-science review of the research into low-level RF fields above 6 GHz (2021) · cites this paper as [1]
The ‘Reported Effects at Cellular and Molecular Levels’ section reviews studies of biological effects at millimeter-wave frequencies, including a reported effect at 94 GHz. The Conclusions say some effects occur at exposures much higher than those experienced by the general public, but the paper does not establish that many reported effects occurred above ICNIRP guideline limits. (LLM, conf=0.83)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredSAR values much higher than the ICNIRP guidelines are capable of producing significant temperature rise and are far beyond the levels expected for 5G telecommunication devices.
“SAR values much higher than the ICNIRP guidelines are certainly capable of producing significant temperature rise and are far beyond the levels expected for 5 G telecommunication devices [1].”
From 5G mobile networks and health—a state-of-the-science review of the research into low-level RF fields above 6 GHz (2021) · cites this paper as [1]
In “Reported Effects at Cellular and Molecular Levels” (page unavailable), the paper says an exposure producing SAR·ρ well over 1,000,000 W/m³ would be expected to cause a notable temperature increase and is far beyond levels expected for mmWave communication devices. But it does not equate that exposure with SAR values exceeding ICNIRP limits. In “Modern mmWave Example Suggesting Temperature-Based Compliance” (page unavailable), it instead says a high peak SAR can accompany only a small temperature rise at mmWave frequencies. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
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Foster, K. R., D’Andrea, J. A., Chalfin, S., & Hatcher, D. J. (2003) · Health Physics · doi:10.1097/00004032-200306000-00009 · Cited by 28 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Numerical models of heat transfer in rabbit eyes, nonhuman primate eyes, and human eyes have been published that allow for the evaluation of the temperature distribution of eyes resulting from mmWave exposure [49]–[52].”
Gapeyev, A. B., Mikhailik, E. N., & Chemeris, N. K. (2009) · Bioelectromagnetics · doi:10.1002/bem.20499 · Cited by 28 · cited 1× · see citing works
“1 mW/cm(2)) 42-GHz mmWave exposures were also reported to have anti-inflammatory actions on humans [106], [107].”
Millimeter wave power density in aqueous biological samples
Alekseev, S. I., & Ziskin, M. C. (2001) · Bioelectromagnetics · doi:10.1002/bem.52 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Logani, M. K., Bhanushali, A., Ziskin, M. C., & Prihoda, T. J. (2004) · Radiation Research · doi:10.1667/rr3121 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Advances in antennas and propagation for body centric wireless communications
Hall, ., & Hao, Y. (2010) · European Conference on Antennas and Propagation · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Risks of Exposure to Ionizing and Millimeter-Wave Radiation from Airport Whole-Body Scanners1
Moulder, J. E. (2012) · Radiation Research · doi:10.1667/rr2897.1 · Cited by 18 · cited 1× · see citing works
“The use of low-level (less than 1nW/cm(2)) radiation in mmWave airport security scanners throughout the world on thousands of travelers is performed daily under the widely accepted view that the only potential direct biological effect of the nonionizing radiation in this band is heating [11].”
Cutaneous microwave injury. A report of two cases
Brodkin, R. H., & Bleiberg, J. (1973) · Acta Dermato Venereologica · doi:10.2340/00015555535052 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
High-Frequency Electromagnetic Radiation Injury to the Upper Extremity
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“Cases of accidental overexposure have been reported in the literature from faulty microwave ovens operating at 2,450 MHz [21], [22].”
Effects of 35 and 107 GHz CW Microwaves on the Rabbit Eye
Rosenthal, S. W. (1976) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Parametric analysis of transient skin heating induced by terahertz radiation
Zilberti, L., Arduino, A., Bottauscio, O., & Chiampi, M. (2014) · Bioelectromagnetics · doi:10.1002/bem.21842 · Cited by 16 · cited 1× · see citing works
“[76], [77] reported on how the uncertainty and variability of the electric and thermal properties of tissues could affect the estimation of temperature elevation produced during mmWave exposures using a 1-D three-layer human skin model.”
Bioelectrical Brain Activity in Workers Exposed to Electromagnetic Fields
Bielski, J. (1994) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1994.tb38945.x · Cited by 16 · cited 1× · see citing works
“One can speculate that these more conservative regulations stem from nonspecific health problems (such as headaches, fatigue, irritability, sleep disorders, and dizziness) that were reported in the medical literature from Russia and China based on low-level exposure studies [31].”
Terahertz Behavior of Optical Components and Common Materials
Gatesman, A. J., Danylov, A. A., Goyette, T. M., Dickinson, J. C., Giles, R. H., Goodhue, W. D., Jerry Waldman, A., Nixon, W. E., & Hoen, W. (2006) · doi:10.21236/ada461642 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Theoretical Analysis for Temperature Elevation of Human Body Due to Millimeter Wave Exposure
Kanezaki, A., Watanabe, S., Hirata, A., & Shirai, H. (2008) · Cairo International Biomedical Engineering Conference · doi:10.1109/cibec.2008.4786116 · Cited by 14 · cited 1× · see citing works
“[72] investigated the analytical solution of the bioheat equation in [73] [see (10) discussed subsequently] for a one-dimensional (1-D) three-layer human model using the Laplace transform.”
Numerical modeling of heat and mass transfer in the human eye under millimeter wave exposure
Karampatzakis, A., & Samaras, T. (2013) · Bioelectromagnetics · doi:10.1002/bem.21774 · Cited by 13 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Numerical models of heat transfer in rabbit eyes, nonhuman primate eyes, and human eyes have been published that allow for the evaluation of the temperature distribution of eyes resulting from mmWave exposure [49]–[52].”
Numerical Model of Heat Transfer in the Rabbit Eye Exposed to 60-GHz Millimeter Wave Radiation
Papaioannou, A., & Samaras, T. (2011) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering · doi:10.1109/tbme.2011.2159502 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Millimeter wave bioeffects at 94 GHz on skeletal muscle contraction
Chatterjee, I., Yoon, J., Wiese, R., Luongo, S., Mastin, P., Sadovnik, L. S., & Craviso, G. L. (2013) · IEEE Topical Conference on Biomedical Wireless Technologies, Networks, and Sensing Systems (BioWireleSS) · doi:10.1109/biowireless.2013.6613677 · Cited by 6 · cited 1× · see citing works
“[89] reported the possibility of nonthermal bioeffects at 94 GHz on skeletal muscle.”
A model to analyze the skin heating produced by millimeter and submillimeter electromagnetic waves
Zilberti, L., Arduino, A., Bottauscio, O., & Chiampi, M. (2013) · International Conference on Electromagnetics in Advanced Applications (ICEAA) · doi:10.1109/iceaa.2013.6632368 · Cited by 6 · cited 3× · see citing works
“Due to the 1-D nature of the model, the temperature in each homogeneous biological layer can be described using the 1-D version of the bioheat transfer equation given by [76]”
MethodThird Generation Communication Systems
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Third Generation Communication Systems: Future Developments and Advanced Topics
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Hirata, A., 甲斐, 友., & 野原, 稔. (2006) · PubMed · doi:10.1109/tbme.2006.877798
Flagged first, then by citations
4 of the 98 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Research works printed but not linked: 7
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
Next generation 5G wireless networks: a comprehensive survey
Agiwal, M., Roy, A., & Saxena, N. (2016) · IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials · doi:10.1109/comst.2016.2532458 · Cited by 3,444 · see citing works
“Nonionizing and thermal characteristic of mm-waves for safety concerns is analyzed in [66].”
BackgroundRappaport, T. S., Xing, Y., Kanhere, O., Ju, S., Madanayake, A., Mandal, S., Alkhateeb, A., & Trichopoulos, G. C. (2019) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2019.2921522 · Cited by 2,617 · see citing works
“…includes ultraviolet, x-rays, galactic radiation, and gamma-rays, is dangerous since it is known to have sufficiently high particle energy to dislodge electrons and create free-radicals that can lead to cancer [11], [12] and is believed to be a major health risk for interplanetary travel [12], [13].”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationModeling and Analyzing Millimeter Wave Cellular Systems
Andrews, J. G., Bai, T., Kulkarni, M. N., Alkhateeb, A., Gupta, A. K., & Heath, R. W. (2016) · IEEE Transactions on Communications · doi:10.1109/tcomm.2016.2618794 · Cited by 799 · see citing works
“The biological impact of mmWave radiation has also been further studied in [50] and [51].”
BackgroundMillimeter-Wave Massive MIMO Communication for Future Wireless Systems: A Survey
Busari, S. A., Huq, K. M. S., Mumtaz, S., Dai, L., & Rodrı́guez, J. (2017) · IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials · doi:10.1109/comst.2017.2787460 · Cited by 732 · see citing works
“[212] concluded that both the eyes and the skin”
BackgroundHemadeh, I., Satyanarayana, K., El‐Hajjar, M., & Hanzo, L. (2017) · IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials · doi:10.1109/comst.2017.2783541 · Cited by 715 · see citing works
Alsharif, M. H., Kelechi, A. H., Albreem, M. A. M., Chaudhry, S. A., Zia, M. S., & Kim, S. (2020) · Symmetry · doi:10.3390/sym12040676 · Cited by 361 · see citing works
“In other words, the magnitude of an ionizing photon’s energy levels is three times higher than that of the nonionizing photon [83,84].”
BackgroundSerghiou, D., Khalily, M., Brown, T., & Tafazolli, R. (2022) · IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials · doi:10.1109/comst.2022.3205505 · Cited by 318 · see citing works
“THz radiation is generally considered as a form of non-ionizing radiation [206].”
BackgroundHong, W. (2017) · IEEE Microwave Magazine · doi:10.1109/mmm.2017.2740538 · Cited by 285 · see citing works
“(b) The attenuation of SAR in the skin for an incident PD of 10 mW/m(2) at 60 GHz [27].”
Dielectric Properties Characterization From 0.5 to 50 GHz of Breast Cancer Tissues
Martellosio, A., Bellomi, M., Pasian, M., Bozzi, M., Perregrini, L., Mazzanti, A., Svelto, F., Summers, P. E., Renne, G., & Preda, L. (2016) · IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques · doi:10.1109/tmtt.2016.2631162 · Cited by 261 · see citing works
Terahertz Communication for Vehicular Networks
(2017) · IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology · doi:10.1109/tvt.2017.2712878 · Cited by 261 · see citing works
Propagation Measurement System and Approach at 140 GHz-Moving to 6G and Above 100 GHz
Xing, Y., & Rappaport, T. S. (2018) · Globecom · doi:10.1109/glocom.2018.8647921 · Cited by 252 · see citing works
“Work in [23], [24] summarized potential biological effects of nonionizing mmWave radiation on the human body and showed that even the eyes and skin, where these tissues would receive the most intense heat from radiation, would not suffer damage from mmWave in the far field.”
BackgroundSelf-citation5 G wireless telecommunications expansion: Public health and environmental implications
Russell, C. L. (2018) · Environmental Research · doi:10.1016/j.envres.2018.01.016 · Cited by 198 · see citing works
“In another IEEE publication looking at MMW health effects, Wu et al. (2015b) support current standards of safety based on heat but point out that the MMW research on biological effects is sparse relative to that of longer microwave frequencies.”
BackgroundInfluentialThe human body and millimeter-wave wireless communication systems: Interactions and implications
Wu, T., Rappaport, T. S., & Collins, C. M. (2015) · International Conference on Communications · doi:10.1109/icc.2015.7248688 · Cited by 190 · see citing works
Self-citationGao, Y., Wang, Y., Yue, T., & Wang, M. (2022) · Composites Part B Engineering · doi:10.1016/j.compositesb.2022.110402 · Cited by 162 · see citing works
Multi-Resident Non-Contact Vital Sign Monitoring Using Radar: A Review
Singh, A., Rehman, S. U., Yongchareon, S., & Chong, P. H. J. (2020) · IEEE Sensors Journal · doi:10.1109/jsen.2020.3036039 · Cited by 157 · see citing works
“The temperature changes in the range of 1◦c in the skin are considered safe [41].”
BackgroundInfluentialKaripidis, K., Mate, R., Urban, D., Tinker, R., & Wood, A. (2021) · Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology · doi:10.1038/s41370-021-00297-6 · Cited by 150 · see citing works
Middleware technologies for cloud of things: a survey
Farahzadi, A., Shams, P., Rezazadeh, J., & Farahbakhsh, R. (2017) · Digital Communications and Networks · doi:10.1016/j.dcan.2017.04.005 · Cited by 148 · see citing works
“For example, authors in [43] investigated millimeter-waves frequencies side effects and threats on humans body.”
BackgroundExposure to RF EMF From Array Antennas in 5G Mobile Communication Equipment
Thors, B., Colombi, D., Ying, Z., Bolin, T., & Törnevik, C. (2016) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2016.2601145 · Cited by 128 · see citing works
“A literature review of what is required to ensure safety of emerging 5G technologies with respect to RF EMF exposure was presented in [12].”
BackgroundPlanning 5G Networks Under EMF Constraints: State of the Art and Vision
Chiaraviglio, L., Cacciapuoti, A. S., Martino, G. D., Fiore, M., Montesano, M., Trucchi, D., & Bléfari-Melazzi, N. (2018) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2018.2868347 · Cited by 120 · see citing works
“[34] review our current understanding of the potential biological effects of non-ionizing millimeterwave (mmWave) radiation on the human body.”
BackgroundOn the Feasibility of Breast Cancer Imaging Systems at Millimeter-Waves Frequencies
Meo, S. D., Svelto, F., Summers, P. E., Renne, G., Preda, L., Bellomi, M., Espín, P., Martellosio, A., Pasian, M., Matrone, G. C., et al. (2017) · IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques · doi:10.1109/tmtt.2017.2672938 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
“in the tissue at mm-wave frequencies is demonstrated [25].”
BackgroundKainz, W., Neufeld, E., Bolch, W. E., Graff, C. G., Kim, C. H., Kuster, N., Lloyd, B., Morrison, T., Segars, P., Yeom, Y. S., et al. (2019) · IEEE Transactions on Radiation and Plasma Medical Sciences · doi:10.1109/trpms.2018.2883437 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
Tissue models for RF exposure evaluation at frequencies above 6 GHz
Ziskin, M. C., Alekseev, S. I., Foster, K. R., & Balzano, Q. (2018) · Bioelectromagnetics · doi:10.1002/bem.22110 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
“Although the transmission of energy into the skin may be increased or decreased by the presence of clothing, the attenuation of millimeter waves by most garment materials is negligible [Wu et al., 2015].”
BackgroundZada, M., Shah, I. A., & Yoo, H. (2021) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2021.3051066 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
“To prevent tissue heating at higher frequencies (>10 GHz), PD is currently preferred because of the difficulty in determining a reasonable averaging volume for SAR estimation at very low penetration depth [35].”
BackgroundJamshed, M. A., Héliot, F., & Brown, T. (2019) · IEEE Journal of Electromagnetics RF and Microwaves in Medicine and Biology · doi:10.1109/jerm.2019.2917766 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
“caused by the absorption of EM mmWave energy by tissues, cells, and biological fluids [46], [47].”
BackgroundShakya, D., Ying, M., Rappaport, T. S., Poddar, H., Ma, P., Wang, Y., & Al-Wazani, I. (2024) · IEEE Open Journal of the Communications Society · doi:10.1109/ojcoms.2024.3431686 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
“As was reported in [50], the mmWave spectrum is more than four orders of magnitude below ionizing radiation, and thus FR1(C) and FR3 frequencies are more than five orders of magnitude below the ionizing frequency range.”
BackgroundSelf-citationWearable Communications in 5G: Challenges and Enabling Technologies
Sun, H., Zhang, Z., Hu, R. Q., & Qian, Y. (2018) · IEEE Vehicular Technology Magazine · doi:10.1109/mvt.2018.2810317 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
“Therefore, temperature elevation of a direct contact area is proposed as the appropriate metric for mmWave RF exposure in [4].”
BackgroundSixty Years of Coherent Versus Non-Coherent Tradeoffs and the Road From 5G to Wireless Futures
Xu, C., Ishikawa, N., Rajashekar, R., Sugiura, S., Maunder, R. G., Wang, Z., Yang, L., & Hanzo, L. (2019) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2019.2957706 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
“Beyond the visible light frequency of 800 THz, harmful ionizing radiation is generally encountered in the Ultraviolet, X-ray and Gamma ray bands, if the photon energy exceeds the 12 eV threshold, beyond which electrons are removed from atoms/molecules [58], [289].”
BackgroundA Novel Compact, Broadband, High Gain Millimeter-Wave Antenna for 5G Beam Steering Applications
Ozpinar, H., Akşimşek, S., & Tokan, N. T. (2020) · IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology · doi:10.1109/tvt.2020.2966009 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Millimeter Wave Networked Wearables in Dense Indoor Environments
Venugopal, K., & Heath, R. W. (2016) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2016.2542478 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
“Temperature elevation measurements are yet another way to evaluate compliance on mmWave devices [16], [17].”
BackgroundLi, K., Sasaki, K., Watanabe, S., & Shirai, H. (2019) · Physics in Medicine and Biology · doi:10.1088/1361-6560/ab057a · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Toward 6G Communication Networks: Terahertz Frequency Challenges and Open Research Issues
Alsharif, M. H., Albreem, M. A. M., Solyman, A., & Kim, S. (2021) · Computers, materials & continua/Computers, materials & continua (Print) · doi:10.32604/cmc.2021.013176 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
“Recent works in [47,48] provide a first step in this direction.”
BackgroundInvestigation of wireless power transfer applications with a focus on renewable energy
Chhawchharia, S., Sahoo, S. K., Balamurugan, M., Sukchai, S., & Yanine, F. F. (2018) · Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.rser.2018.04.101 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Wang, H., Xu, B., Gustafsson, M., Ying, Z., & He, S. (2017) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2017.2776145 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
“, less than 2 mm at 15 GHz and less than 1 mm at 30 GHz) and the correlation between SAR and 1T becomes weak [28].”
BackgroundInfluentialSafe and secure wireless power transfer networks: challenges and opportunities in RF-based systems
Liu, Q., Yıldırım, K. S., Pawełczak, P., & Warnier, M. (2016) · IEEE Communications Magazine · doi:10.1109/mcom.2016.7565191 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
The human skin as a sub-THz receiver – Does 5G pose a danger to it or not?
Betzalel, N., Ishai, P. B., & Feldman, Y. D. (2018) · Environmental Research · doi:10.1016/j.envres.2018.01.032 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
6G Communication Networks: Introduction, Vision, Challenges, and Future Directions
Meena, P., Pal, M. B., Jain, P. K., & Pamula, R. (2022) · Wireless Personal Communications · doi:10.1007/s11277-022-09590-5 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
“The energy level in ionizing photons is three times more than non-ionizing photons [89].”
BackgroundRadio resource management: approaches and implementations from 4G to 5G and beyond
Akhtar, T., Tselios, C., & Politis, I. (2020) · Wireless Networks · doi:10.1007/s11276-020-02479-w · Cited by 59 · see citing works
“The scrutiny of mm-wave frequencies on the ground of biological safety is also a significant concern [226].”
BackgroundDiao, Y., Rashed, E. A., & Hirata, A. (2020) · Physics in Medicine and Biology · doi:10.1088/1361-6560/abbdb7 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
“Dosimetric studies for frequencies above 6 GHz have been conducted for both near- and far-field exposure scenarios (Alekseev et al 2008, Kanezaki et al 2010, Wu et al 2015, Sasaki et al 2017, Xu et al 2017, He et al 2018, Colombi et al 2018, Li et al 2019).”
BackgroundRadiation Performance Analysis of 28 GHz Antennas Integrated in 5G Mobile Terminal Housing
Xu, B., Ying, Z., Scialacqua, L., Scannavini, A., Foged, L. J., Bolin, T., Zhao, K., He, S., & Gustafsson, M. (2018) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2018.2867719 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“The energy penetration depth of tissue is less than 2mm at 15GHz and less than 1mm at 30GHz [64].”
BackgroundPublic Safety Communications above 6 GHz: Challenges and Opportunities
Mezzavilla, M., Polese, M., Zanella, A., Dhananjay, A., Rangan, S., Kessler, C., Rappaport, T. S., & Zorzi, M. (2017) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2017.2762471 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Self-citationMillimeter-wave ink-jet printed RF energy harvester for next generation flexible electronics
Bito, J., Palazzi, V., Hester, J. G. D., Bahr, R. A., Alimenti, F., Mezzanotte, P., Roselli, L., & Tentzeris, M. M. (2017) · IEEE Wireless Power Transfer Conference · doi:10.1109/wpt.2017.7953871 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
“Yet, printed flexible mm-wave systems still remain largely absent, despite their potential for spatially-multiplexed long-range sensing, or highly-directed wireless power delivery, in addition to their relatively limited health hazard (apart from adverse low-depth heating effects at extremely high power densities) [3].”
Patil, A., Iyer, S., López, O. L. A., Pandya, R. J., Pai, K., Kalla, A., & Kallimani, R. (2024) · Computer Networks · doi:10.1016/j.comnet.2024.110697 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Data Detection in Single User Massive MIMO Using Re-Transmissions
Vasudevan, K., Madhu, K., & Singh, S. (2019) · The Open Signal Processing Journal · doi:10.2174/1876825301906010015 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Skin Temperature Elevation for Incident Power Densities From Dipole Arrays at 28 Ghz
Nakae, T., Funahashi, D., Higashiyama, J., Onishi, T., & Hirata, A. (2020) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2020.2970219 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
“In 5G transmission system development, a key factor is human safety [3]–[12].”
BackgroundNon-intrusive Human Vital Sign Detection Using mmWave Sensing Technologies: A Review
Wu, Y., Ni, H., Mao, C., Han, J., & Xu, W. (2023) · ACM Transactions on Sensor Networks · doi:10.1145/3627161 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
“2 meV, far short of the 12 eV required to break molecular bonds[117].”
BackgroundIntroduction to mmWave massive MIMO
Mumtaz, S., Rodrı́guez, J., & Dai, L. (2016) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-804418-6.00001-7 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Morelli, M. S., Gallucci, S., Siervo, B., & Hartwig, V. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18031073 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
“This becomes important for some human tissues which are particularly vulnerable to electromagnetic radiation-induced heating: for example, the eyes that, in addition to be located on the body surface, are less perfused to blood so they cannot properly redistribute the generated heat [6].”
Influential5G and wireless body area networks
Jones, R. W., & Katzis, K. (2018) · IEEE Wireless Communications and Networking Conference Workshops (WCNCW) · doi:10.1109/wcncw.2018.8369035 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Glucose Levels Detection Using mm-Wave Radar
Omer, A. E., Shaker, G. S. A., Safavi‐Naeini, S., Murray, K. R., & Hughson, R. L. (2018) · IEEE Sensors Letters · doi:10.1109/lsens.2018.2865165 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
“The study in [2] shows that these waves can penetrate about 0.”
BackgroundLi, K., Diao, Y., Sasaki, K., Prokop, A., Poljak, D., Dorić, V., Xi, J., Kodera, S., Hirata, A., & Hajj, W. E. (2021) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2021.3126738 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
“Some recent studies have investigated these two IPD definitions by [19]−[26], including oblique incidence for near-field [27][28] and plane-wave exposure conditions [29]−[32].”
BackgroundInvestigations on SAR and Thermal Effects of a Body Wearable Microstrip Antenna
Karthik, V., & Rao, T. R. (2017) · Wireless Personal Communications · doi:10.1007/s11277-017-4059-9 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Leduc, C., & Zhadobov, M. (2017) · IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation · doi:10.1109/tap.2017.2700879 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Pall, M. L. (2021) · Reviews on Environmental Health · doi:10.1515/reveh-2020-0165 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Recent Advancements in User Effect Mitigation for Mobile Terminal Antennas: A Review
Khan, R., Al‐Hadi, A. A., & Soh, P. J. (2018) · IEEE Transactions on Electromagnetic Compatibility · doi:10.1109/temc.2018.2791418 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
“To study mmW propagation characteristic, the dielectric property of the human skin has to be determined very accurately [41], [42].”
BackgroundBhatt, C. R., Henderson, S. I., Brzozek, C., & Benke, G. (2022) · Physical and Engineering Sciences in Medicine · doi:10.1007/s13246-022-01146-y · Cited by 36 · see citing works
“Currently the fifth generation (5G) New Radio (NR) infrastructure utilises frequencies below 6 GHz [4], but in future 5G NR will utilise frequencies in or near the millimetre wave (30–300 GHz) range [5, 6].”
BackgroundVishnuram, P., Suresh, P., Narayanamoorthi, R., Krishnasamy, V., Bajaj, M., Piecha, M., Blažek, V., & Prokop, L. (2023) · Energies · doi:10.3390/en16104020 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Problems in evaluating the health impacts of radio frequency radiation
Ishai, P. B., Davis, D. L., Taylor, H. S., & Birnbaum, L. S. (2024) · Environmental Research · doi:10.1016/j.envres.2022.115038 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Sacco, G., Pisa, S., & Zhadobov, M. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-82458-z · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Frequency Scanning Conformal Sensor Based on SIW Metamaterial Antenna
Çelenk, E., & Tokan, N. T. (2021) · IEEE Sensors Journal · doi:10.1109/jsen.2021.3075556 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Near-Field User Exposure in Forthcoming 5G Scenarios in the 60 GHz Band
Guraliuc, A. R., Zhadobov, M., Sauleau, R., Marnat, L., & Dussopt, L. (2017) · IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation · doi:10.1109/tap.2017.2754473 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Leszczyński, D. (2020) · Reviews on Environmental Health · doi:10.1515/reveh-2020-0056 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Li, K., Sasaki, K., Wake, K., Onishi, T., & Watanabe, S. (2021) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2021.3105608 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Wood, A., Mate, R., & Karipidis, K. (2021) · Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology · doi:10.1038/s41370-021-00307-7 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“84 of the 88 studies reported PD values at or below the occupational 6-min average reference levels for local exposures, which ranges from 200W/m2 at 6 GHz, dropping down to 100W/m2 at 300 GHz [2].”
BackgroundInfluentialHuman Electromagnetic Field Exposure in 5G at 28 GHz
Kim, S., & Nasim, I. (2020) · IEEE Consumer Electronics Magazine · doi:10.1109/mce.2019.2956223 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“The FCC suggests PD as a metric measuring the human exposure to EMF generated by devices operating at frequencies higher than 6 GHz [12], whereas a recent study suggested that a guideline defined in PD is not efficient to determine the impacts on health issues especially when devices are operating in a very close prox…”
BackgroundMethodE-Health applications over 5G networks: challenges and state of the art
Selem, E., Fatehy, M., & El-Kader, S. M. A. (2019) · International Conference on Advanced Control Circuits and Systems (ACCS) & International Conference on New Paradigms in Electronics & Information Technology (PEIT) · doi:10.1109/accs-peit48329.2019.9062841 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“The limited-range of mm-Wave has a significant effect on enhancing the WBAN security [39].”
BackgroundFrequency Matters: Comparative Analysis of Low-Power FMCW Radars for Vital Sign Monitoring
Marty, S., Ronco, A., Pantanella, F., Dheman, K., & Magno, M. (2024) · IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement · doi:10.1109/tim.2024.3381692 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“At these frequencies, the skin penetration of the signal is below 1 mm [21].”
BackgroundColella, M., Meo, S. D., Liberti, M., Pasian, M., & Apollonio, F. (2023) · IEEE transactions on microwave theory and techniques · doi:10.1109/tmtt.2023.3267568 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“The same sequence of layers (skin, subcutaneous fat tissue, and muscle) was used by Wu et al. [40] to model human tissue with the aim of analyzing the steady-state temperature increase due to the exposure to EM waves at 40, 60, 80, and 100 GHz.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialLi, K., Kodera, S., Poljak, D., Diao, Y., Sasaki, K., Zhang, S., Yao, M., Kapetanović, A. L., Li, C., Wu, T., et al. (2024) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2024.3358109 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“The use of radio wave transmitters in millimeter wave frequencies has raised public concerns regarding the potential adverse health effects of excessive exposure to electromagnetic fields (EMFs) [1], [2], [3], [4].”
BackgroundSelf-citationAn Anatomical Model for the Simulation and Development of Subcutaneous Implantable Wireless Devices
Green, R. B., Hays, M. R., Mangino, M. J., & Topsakal, E. (2020) · IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation · doi:10.1109/tap.2020.3008619 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“The measured results from the porcine animal model and the human tissue [16] are shown in Figs.”
Castellanos, M. R., Love, D. J., & Hochwald, B. M. (2016) · Asilomar Conference on Signals, Systems and Computers (ACSSC) · doi:10.1109/acssc.2016.7869045 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Cooper, M. D. (2019) · Safety Science · doi:10.1016/j.ssci.2019.06.038 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Epidermal Backscattering Antennas in the 5G Framework: Performance and Perspectives
Amato, F., Occhiuzzi, C., & Marrocco, G. (2020) · IEEE Journal of Radio Frequency Identification · doi:10.1109/jrfid.2020.2998082 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“effects of mmWave radiations on heating and penetration of the human body were theoretically discussed in [17].”
BackgroundInfluentialCoViS: A Contactless Health Monitoring System for the Nursing Home
Lopes, S. I., Silva, F., Pinho, P. G. L. F., Marques, P. A. C., Abreu, C., Milheiro, J., Braga, B., Queirós, G., Almeida, R., & Carvalho, N. B. (2024) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2024.3355060 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“…systems operate in the low-energy part of the electromagnetic spectrum, the principal possible source of harm to the subject would be skin burns [26], [27]; however, this risk is mitigated not only by keeping the output power low but by the attenuation added given the distance between the…”
BackgroundElectromagnetic Radiation Reduction in 5G Networks and Beyond Using Thermal Radiation Mode
Kour, H., & Jha, R. K. (2020) · IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology · doi:10.1109/tvt.2020.3020004 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“This leads to heating of the tissues due to temperature rise and it has also been validated that at high frequency of operation such as mmWave the power density exposure to the human body is also high [10].”
BackgroundMethodEmpirical Evaluation of a 28 GHz Antenna Array on a 5G Mobile Phone Using a Body Phantom
Vähä-Savo, L., Cziezerski, C., Heino, M., Haneda, K., Icheln, C., Hazmi, A., & Tian, R. (2021) · IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation · doi:10.1109/tap.2021.3076535 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“9 mm [23], and is thicker than the penetration depth of electromagnetic waves at 28 GHz.”
Authentication in Millimeter-Wave Body-Centric Networks Through Wireless Channel Characterization
Zhao, N., Zhang, Z., Rehman, M. U., Ren, A., Yang, X., Zhao, J., Zhao, W. Z., & Dong, B. (2017) · IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation · doi:10.1109/tap.2017.2681462 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“semi-infinite plane to the incident mm-waves [15].”
BackgroundInfluentialAdverse Impacts of 5G Downlinks on Human Body
Nasim, I., & Kim, S. (2019) · IEEE SoutheastCon · doi:10.1109/southeastcon42311.2019.9020454 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“Few prior studies in the literature paid attention to human EMF exposure in communications system at above 6 GHz frequency spectrum [7][13]-[17].”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialOdularu, A. T. (2020) · Journal of Spectroscopy · doi:10.1155/2020/8869713 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“'e range has electromagnetic waves with minimum frequencies of below one g hertz to a maximum of over 10(28) hertz, equivalent to wavelengths [9] or from a fraction of an atomic nucleus size to a thousand kilometre [8].”
BackgroundPotential key challenges for terahertz communication systems
Solyman, A., & Elhaty, I. A. (2021) · International Journal of Power Electronics and Drive Systems/International Journal of Electrical and Computer Engineering · doi:10.11591/ijece.v11i4.pp3403-3409 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“Thus, THz radiation is considered as a non-ionizing photon energy [49, 50].”
BackgroundKaripidis, K., Brzozek, C., Bhatt, C. R., Loughran, S., & Wood, A. (2021) · Environmental Evidence · doi:10.1186/s13750-021-00252-w · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“The 5G network currently operates at 3.6 GHz and 26–28 GHz and there are plans for future mobile networks to utilise higher frequency bands beyond 60 GHz [9].”
InfluentialExposure Levels Induced in Curved Body Parts at mmWaves
Sacco, G., Haider, Z., & Zhadobov, M. (2022) · IEEE Journal of Electromagnetics RF and Microwaves in Medicine and Biology · doi:10.1109/jerm.2022.3178604 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Millimeter Wave Radiation Activates Leech Nociceptors via TRPV1-Like Receptor Sensitization
Romanenko, S., Harvey, A. R., Hool, L. C., Begley, R., Fan, S., & Wallace, V. P. (2019) · Biophysical Journal · doi:10.1016/j.bpj.2019.04.021 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Human EMF Exposure in Wearable Networks for Internet of Battlefield Things
Nasim, I., & Kim, S. (2019) · IEEE Military Communications Conference (MILCOM) · doi:10.1109/milcom47813.2019.9020889 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“The FCC suggests power density (PD) as a metric measuring the human exposure to EMFs generated by devices operating at frequencies higher than 6 GHz [7], whereas a recent study suggested that the specific absorption rate (SAR) is more efficient to determine the health issues especially when devices are operating very…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialKaripidis, K., Brzozek, C., Mate, R., Bhatt, C. R., Loughran, S., & Wood, A. (2023) · Environmental Evidence · doi:10.1186/s13750-023-00304-3 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“Other RF EMF sources operating above 3 GHz include radar, satellite transmissions and Wi-Fi [8].”
InfluentialInvestigation of mmWave Radar Technology For Non-contact Vital Sign Monitoring
Marty, S., Pantanella, F., Ronco, A., Dheman, K., & Magno, M. (2023) · IEEE International Symposium on Medical Measurements and Applications (MeMeA) · doi:10.1109/memea57477.2023.10171940 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Kazmi, A., Zada, M., Islam, S., & Yoo, H. (2024) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2024.3374896 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“The main reason for calculating PD is the low penetration depth at higher frequencies; thus, the heating occurs only on the surface of the tissue [40].”
BackgroundMitigation of human EMF exposure in downlink of 5G
Nasim, I., & Kim, S. (2018) · Annals of Telecommunications · doi:10.1007/s12243-018-0696-6 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Quasi-Yagi Slotted Array Antenna with Fan-Beam Characteristics for 28 GHz 5G Mobile Terminals
Kim, S., & Choi, J. (2020) · Applied Sciences · doi:10.3390/app10217686 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“As we mentioned, since skin penetration depth of the energy is less than 2 mm at 15 GHz and less than 1 mm at 30 GHz [16], a simplified skin phantom of 2 mm thickness with a relative dielectric constant of 16.”
BackgroundKarthik, V., & Rao, T. R. (2018) · Bioelectromagnetics · doi:10.1002/bem.22133 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“Safe use of the antenna on the body is more closely related to temperature changes than power density values [Wu et al., 2015].”
BackgroundChevillon, R., Andrieux, G., Négrier, R., & Diouris, J. (2018) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2018.2882679 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“Although biological safety [13] and channel behavior [14], [15] of mmWaves are not totally defined at the”
BackgroundWilliams, C. F., Geroni, G. M., Lloyd, D., Choi, H., Clark, N., Pirog, A., Lees, J., & Porch, A. (2019) · Journal of Biomedical Optics · doi:10.1117/1.jbo.24.5.051412 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Dynamic Electromagnetic Exposure Allocation for Rayleigh Fading MIMO Channels
Castellanos, M. R., Ying, D., Love, D. J., Peleato, B., & Hochwald, B. M. (2019) · IEEE Transactions on Wireless Communications · doi:10.1109/twc.2019.2948916 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“In [24], the peak SAR measurement of a mmWave system is shown to be much larger than those in microwave frequencies because the penetration depth at a high frequency band is very shallow.”
Upper-bound Performances of RFID Epidermal Sensor Networks at 5G Frequencies
Amato, F., Amendola, S., & Marrocco, G. (2019) · Wearable and Implantable Body Sensor Networks · doi:10.1109/bsn.2019.8771071 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“Instead, at mmWave frequencies, a single-layer skin model is enough to reliably evaluate reflection and electromagnetic penetration in the skin since more than 90% of the transmitted electromagnetic power is absorbed within the epidermis and dermis layers and little power penetrates further into deeper tissues [2].”
BackgroundInfluentialShakya, D., Rappaport, T. S., Shahrjerdi, D., Knox, M. E., Nie, S., Madanayake, A., Popovic, Z. B., & Wang, H. (2024) · IEEE Microwave Magazine · doi:10.1109/mmm.2023.3320820 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“As shown by Wu et al. for mm-wave frequencies for 5G [51], energy absorbed into human tissue does not cause appreciable heating, and no research could ever be found to definitively show mm-wave frequencies are harmful to humans.”
BackgroundSelf-citationMultifaceted Free-Space Tissue Sensing up to 100 GHz
Prokscha, A., Batra, A., Santhakumaran, S., Fabricius, J., Kirchner, E. A., & Kaiser, T. (2024) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2024.3439605 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“Additionally, based on the estimated skin conductivity comparison from different studies presented in [79], it can be summarized that the absorption or penetration losses from skin increase with frequency.”
BackgroundMethodArea-Averaged Transmitted and Absorbed Power Density on a Realistic Ear Model
Kapetanović, A. L., Sacco, G., Poljak, D., & Zhadobov, M. (2022) · IEEE Journal of Electromagnetics RF and Microwaves in Medicine and Biology · doi:10.1109/jerm.2022.3225380 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“Thus far, most of dosimetry studies at MMW used planar tissue-equivalent single- [11], [12], [13] or multi-layer [14], [15], [16], [17], [18], [19] models.”
BackgroundShrivastava, P., & Rao, T. R. (2017) · IEEE Antennas and Propagation Magazine · doi:10.1109/map.2017.2753702 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“Unlike evaluations of SAR or temperature [19], [20], evaluations of PD depend only on the density of power traveling toward the tissues and do not rely on knowledge of the distribution of fields or power absorption in the tissues.”
BackgroundMethodLi, K., & Sasaki, K. (2022) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2022.795414 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Assessment of Incident Power Density on Spherical Head Model up to 100 GHz
Kapetanović, A. L., & Poljak, D. (2022) · IEEE Transactions on Electromagnetic Compatibility · doi:10.1109/temc.2022.3183071 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Human Electromagnetic Field Exposure in Wearable Communications: A ReviewPreprint
Kim, S., Sharif, Y. A., & Nasim, I. (2019) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1912.05282 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“The pain detection threshold temperature for human skin is approximately 43◦C [40] and any temperature exceeding it can cause a long-term injury.”
Background
- Authors
- Wu, T., Rappaport, T. S., & Collins, C. M.
- Affiliations
- New York University (US)
- NYU Langone Health (US)
- Venue
- IEEE Microwave Magazine
- Published
- 2015-03
- Volume
- 16
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 65-84
- ISSN
- 1527-3342 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC4629874
- OpenAlex
- W2029468290
- Cited by
- 243
- References
- 98
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 13 · 2024: 25 · 2023: 28 · 2022: 24 · 2021: 28 · 2020: 32 · 2019: 22 · 2018: 25 · 2017: 25 · 2016: 14 · 2015: 3
- FWCI
- 10.75
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- IEEE Microwave Magazine (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering (P41EB017183)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Millimeter-Wave Propagation and Modeling
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Biophysics › Electromagnetic Fields and Biological Effects
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Microwave Engineering and Waveguides
- Keywords
- millimeter-wave communication, 60 GHz, IEEE 802.11ad, 5G, unlicensed spectrum, wireless local area networks, data rate requirements
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
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