Cited by 973Social and Intergroup PsychologyPsychometric Methodologies and TestingRacial and Ethnic Identity Research

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 42 of the 42 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

Implicit Attitude Measures: Consistency, Stability, and Convergent Validity

Open access

Cunningham, William A., Preacher, Kristopher J., Banaji, Mahzarin R.·2001·Psychological Science

Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Abstract

In recent years, several techniques have been developed to measure implicit social cognition. Despite their increased use, little attention has been devoted to their reliability and validity. This article undertakes a direct assessment of the interitem consistency, stability, and convergent validity of some implicit attitude measures. Attitudes toward blacks and whites were measured on four separate occasions, each 2 weeks apart, using three relatively implicit measures (response-window evaluative priming, the Implicit Association Test, and the response-window Implicit Association Test) and one explicit measure (Modern Racism Scale). After correcting for interitem inconsistency with latent variable analyses, we found that (a) stability indices improved and (b) implicit measures were substantially correlated with each other, forming a single latent factor. The psychometric properties of response-latency implicit measures have greater integrity than recently suggested.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1111/1467-9280.00328

Cites

42 of 42 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Recomputing p-values needs the paper’s full text.

Claims the paper makes

We couldn’t retrieve this paper’s full text, so its claims and self-check weren’t run. The registry and citation checks still apply.

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Coefficient Alpha and the Internal Structure of Tests
Cronbach, L. J. (1951) · Psychometrika · doi:10.1007/bf02310555 · Cited by 43,931
Alternative Ways of Assessing Model Fit
Browne, M. W., & Cudeck, R. (1992) · Sociological Methods & Research · doi:10.1177/0049124192021002005 · Cited by 27,200
Comparative fit indexes in structural models.
Bentler, P. M. (1990) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.107.2.238 · Cited by 25,266
Significance tests and goodness of fit in the analysis of covariance structures.
Bentler, P. M., & Bonett, D. G. (1980) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.88.3.588 · Cited by 20,015
Structural Equations with Latent Variables
Bollen, K. A. (1989) · Wiley series in probability and statistics · doi:10.1002/9781118619179 · Cited by 17,944
Structural Equations with Latent Variables.
Clogg, C. C., & Bollen, K. A. (1991) · Contemporary Sociology A Journal of Reviews · doi:10.2307/2072165 · Cited by 17,475
Telling more than we can know: Verbal reports on mental processes.
Nisbett, R. E., & Wilson, T. D. (1977) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.84.3.231 · Cited by 11,317 · cited 1×
“The use of such measures necessarily assumes that individuals have both the ability and the motivation to report attitudes and beliefs accurately, assumptions that do not stand up to scrutiny (Greenwald & Banaji, 1995; Nisbett & Wilson, 1977).”
Background
Power analysis and determination of sample size for covariance structure modeling.
MacCallum, R. C., Browne, M. W., & Sugawara, H. M. (1996) · Psychological Methods · doi:10.1037/1082-989x.1.2.130 · Cited by 10,418
Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: the implicit association test
Greenwald, A. G., McGhee, D. E., & Schwartz, J. L. K. (1998) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.74.6.1464 · Cited by 9,210
LISREL 7 : user's reference guide
Jöreskog, K. G., & Sörbom, D. (1989) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 6,783

Flagged first, then by citations

Show all 40 references

Research works printed but not linked: 2

Blair I.V., Cognitive social psychology: On the future of social cognition
Kawakami K., Dovidio J.F. (in press). Implicit stereotyping: How reliable is it? Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin.

Sorted by citations

Items 101–200 of 973

On Assessing the Political Effects of Racial Prejudice
Huddy, L., & Feldman, S. (2009) · Annual Review of Political Science · doi:10.1146/annurev.polisci.11.062906.070752 · Cited by 205
A Tale of Two Visions: Can a New View of Personality Help Integrate Psychology?
Mayer, J. D. (2005) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.60.4.294 · Cited by 195
Patterns and Personality Correlates of Implicit and Explicit Attitudes Toward Christians and Muslims
Rowatt, W. C., Franklin, L. M., & Cotton, M. (2005) · Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion · doi:10.1111/j.1468-5906.2005.00263.x · Cited by 194
Subgroup Prejudice Based on Skin Color Among Hispanics in the United States and Latin America
Uhlmann, E. L., Dasgupta, N., Elgueta, A., Greenwald, A. G., & Swanson, J. E. (2002) · Social Cognition · doi:10.1521/soco.20.3.198.21104 · Cited by 191
Taking a Look Underground: Detecting, Interpreting, and Reacting to Implicit Racial Biases
Monteith, M. J., Voils, C. I., & Ashburn‐Nardo, L. (2001) · Social Cognition · doi:10.1521/soco.19.4.395.20759 · Cited by 190
Teacher Attitudes Toward Dyslexia: Effects on Teacher Expectations and the Academic Achievement of Students With Dyslexia
Hornstra, L., Denessen, E. J. P. G., Bakker, J., van den Bergh, L., & Voeten, M. (2010) · Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1177/0022219409355479 · Cited by 189
Implicit and Explicit Racial Attitudes Changed During Black Lives Matter
Sawyer, J., & Gampa, A. (2018) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167218757454 · Cited by 203
Mindfulness as a moderator of the effect of implicit motivational self-concept on day-to-day behavioral motivation
Levesque, C., & Brown, K. W. (2007) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/s11031-007-9075-8 · Cited by 188
Self-Categorization With a Novel Mixed-Race Group Moderates Automatic Social and Racial Biases
Bavel, J. J. V., & Cunningham, W. A. (2008) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167208327743 · Cited by 187
Self-citation
Contact, Perspective Taking, and Anxiety as Predictors of Stereotype Endorsement, Explicit Attitudes, and Implicit Attitudes
Aberson, C. L., & Haag, S. C. (2007) · Group Processes & Intergroup Relations · doi:10.1177/1368430207074726 · Cited by 187
Tracking the Timecourse of Social Perception: The Effects of Racial Cues on Event-Related Brain Potentials
Ito, T. A., Thompson, E., & Cacioppo, J. T. (2004) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167204264335 · Cited by 187
Linking perceived corporate environmental policies and employees eco-initiatives: The influence of perceived organizational support and psychological contract breach
Paillé, P., & Raineri, N. (2015) · Journal of Business Research · doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2015.02.021 · Cited by 196
Implicit stereotypes and women’s math performance: How implicit gender-math stereotypes influence women’s susceptibility to stereotype threat
Kiefer, A. K., & Sekaquaptewa, D. (2006) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2006.08.004 · Cited by 180
Racial Cognition and the Ethics of Implicit Bias
Kelly, D., & Roedder, E. (2008) · Philosophy Compass · doi:10.1111/j.1747-9991.2008.00138.x · Cited by 179
Do Payment Mechanisms Change the Way Consumers Perceive Products?
Chatterjee, P., & Rose, R. L. (2012) · Journal of Consumer Research · doi:10.1086/661730 · Cited by 178
Black Americans' Implicit Racial Associations And Their Implications for Intergroup Judgment
Ashburn‐Nardo, L., Knowles, M. L., & Monteith, M. J. (2003) · Social Cognition · doi:10.1521/soco.21.1.61.21192 · Cited by 177
Automatic prejudice in childhood and early adolescence.
Degner, J., & Wentura, D. (2010) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0017993 · Cited by 175
Measuring Self-Esteem using the Implicit Association Test: The Role of the Other
Karpinski, A. (2004) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167203258835 · Cited by 175
Mirror, Mirror on the wall: enhancement in self-recognition
Epley, N., & Whitchurch, E. (2008) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167208318601 · Cited by 174
Glowing Praise and the Envious Gaze: Social Dilemmas Surrounding the Public Recognition of Achievement
Exline, J. J., Single, P. B., Lobel, M., & Geyer, A. L. (2004) · Basic and Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1207/s15324834basp2602 · Cited by 174
Six Lessons for a Cogent Science of Implicit Bias and Its Criticism
Gawronski, B. (2019) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691619826015 · Cited by 272
A two-dimensional model that employs explicit and implicit attitudes to characterize prejudice.
Hing, L. S. S., Chung‐Yan, G. A., Hamilton, L. K., & Zanna, M. P. (2008) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.94.6.971 · Cited by 166
AI–Human Hybrids for Marketing Research: Leveraging Large Language Models (LLMs) as Collaborators
Arora, N., Chakraborty, I., & Nishimura, Y. (2024) · Journal of Marketing · doi:10.1177/00222429241276529 · Cited by 211
Toward a comprehensive understanding of executive cognitive function in implicit racial bias.
Ito, T. A., Friedman, N. P., Bartholow, B. D., Correll, J., Loersch, C., Altamirano, L. J., & Miyake, A. (2015) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0038557 · Cited by 159
Implicit motivation to control prejudice
Glaser, J., & Knowles, E. D. (2007) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2007.01.002 · Cited by 158
Attitudes towards individuals with disabilities as measured by the implicit association test: a literature review.
Wilson, M., & Scior, K. (2014) · Research in Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2013.11.003 · Cited by 157
The development and psychometric validation of the Disability Attitude Implicit Association Test.
Pruett, S. R., & Chan, F. H. (2006) · Rehabilitation Psychology · doi:10.1037/0090-5550.51.3.202 · Cited by 152
Explicit and implicit measures of expectancy and related alcohol cognitions: A meta-analytic comparison
Reich, R. R., Below, M. C., & Goldman, M. S. (2010) · Psychology of Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1037/a0016556 · Cited by 152
Implicit Gender Bias and the Use of Cardiovascular Tests Among Cardiologists
Daugherty, S. L., Blair, I. V., Havranek, E. P., Furniss, A., Dickinson, L. M., Karimkhani, E., Main, D. S., & Masoudi, F. A. (2017) · Journal of the American Heart Association · doi:10.1161/jaha.117.006872 · Cited by 150
A Latent State-Trait Analysis of Implicit and Explicit Personality Measures
Schmukle, S. C., & Egloff, B. (2005) · European Journal of Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1027/1015-5759.21.2.100 · Cited by 149
A History of Implicit Social Cognition Where Is It Coming From? Where Is It Now? Where Is It Going?
Payne, B. K., & Gawronski, B. (2010) · Cited by 147
Implicit Attitudes Toward Arab-Muslims and the Moderating Effects of Social Information
Park, J., Felix, K. J., & Lee, G. (2007) · Basic and Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/01973530701330942 · Cited by 146
Implicit Science Stereotypes Mediate the Relationship between Gender and Academic Participation
Lane, K. A., Goh, J. X., & Driver‐Linn, E. (2011) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1007/s11199-011-0036-z · Cited by 160
Do features of stimuli influence IAT effects?
Bluemke, M., & Friese, M. (2005) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2005.03.004 · Cited by 142
Implicit beliefs about self and nature: Evidence from an IAT game
Bruni, C. M., & Schultz, P. W. (2009) · Journal of Environmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2009.10.004 · Cited by 140
Sexy But Often Unreliable: The Impact of Unreliability on the Replicability of Experimental Findings With Implicit Measures
LeBel, E. P., & Paunonen, S. V. (2011) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167211400619 · Cited by 139
What Does the Implicit Association Test Measure? A Test of the Convergent and Discriminant Validity of Prejudice-Related IATs
Gawronski, B. (2002) · Experimental Psychology (formerly Zeitschrift für Experimentelle Psychologie) · doi:10.1026//1618-3169.49.3.171 · Cited by 140
Assessment of multiple implicit self‐concept dimensions using the Extrinsic Affective Simon Task (EAST)
Teige, S., Schnabel, K., Banse, R., & Asendorpf, J. B. (2004) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.531 · Cited by 142
Discrimination and the Implicit Association Test
Rudman, L. A., & Ashmore, R. D. (2007) · Group Processes & Intergroup Relations · doi:10.1177/1368430207078696 · Cited by 139
Emotion response coherence: A dual-process perspective
Evers, C., Hopp, H., Gross, J. J., Fischer, A. H., Manstead, A. S. R., & Mauss, I. B. (2013) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2013.11.003 · Cited by 154
A practical guide to sequential priming and related tasks
Wentura, D., & Degner, J. (2010) · UvA-DARE (University of Amsterdam) · Cited by 137
Children and social groups: A developmental analysis of implicit consistency in Hispanic Americans
Dunham, Y. C., Baron, A. S., & Banaji, M. R. (2007) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298860601115344 · Cited by 137
Self-citation
A Cognitive Skill Confound on the Implicit Association Test
McFarland, S. G., & Crouch, Z. (2002) · Social Cognition · doi:10.1521/soco.20.6.483.22977 · Cited by 136
Establishing construct validity evidence for regional measures of explicit and implicit racial bias.
Hehman, E., Calanchini, J., Flake, J. K., & Leitner, J. B. (2019) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/xge0000623 · Cited by 150
The Mismeasure of the Self
Tanesini, A. (2021) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198858836.001.0001 · Cited by 143
Ten frequently asked questions about implicit measures and their frequently supposed, but not entirely correct answers.
Gawronski, B. (2009) · Canadian Psychology/Psychologie canadienne · doi:10.1037/a0013848 · Cited by 144
Unconscious Racism: A Concept in Pursuit of a Measure
Blanton, H., & Jaccard, J. J. (2008) · Annual Review of Sociology · doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.33.040406.131632 · Cited by 134
The Implicit Relational Assessment Procedure: Exploring the Impact of Private Versus Public Contexts and the Response Latency Criterion on Pro-White and Anti-Black Stereotyping Among White Irish Individuals
Barnes‐Holmes, Y., Murphy, A., Barnes‐Holmes, Y., & Stewart, I. (2010) · The Psychological Record · doi:10.1007/bf03395694 · Cited by 130
The Influence of Multicultural Training on Perceived Multicultural Counseling Competencies and Implicit Racial Prejudice
Castillo, L. G., Brossart, D. F., Reyes, C. J., Conoley, C. W., & Phoummarath, M. J. (2007) · Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development · doi:10.1002/j.2161-1912.2007.tb00064.x · Cited by 128
Automatic attitudes and alcohol: Does implicit liking predict drinking?
Payne, B. K., Govorun, O., & Arbuckle, N. L. (2008) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699930701357394 · Cited by 128
Narcissistic Fragility: Rethinking Its Links to Explicit and Implicit Self-esteem
Gregg, A. P., & Sedikides, C. (2009) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298860902815451 · Cited by 127
Reliability of Implicit Self–Esteem Measures Revisited
Krause, S., Back, M., Egloff, B., & Schmukle, S. (2011) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.792 · Cited by 117
What do implicit measures measure?
Brownstein, M., Madva, A., & Gawronski, B. (2019) · Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews Cognitive Science · doi:10.1002/wcs.1501 · Cited by 128
Implicit effects of justice on self-identity.
Johnson, R. E., & Lord, R. G. (2010) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0019298 · Cited by 122
Measuring corporate social responsibility: A critical review of survey instruments
Latif, K. F., & Sajjad, A. (2018) · Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management · doi:10.1002/csr.1630 · Cited by 127
RESEARCH: Christian Orthodoxy, Religious Fundamentalism, and Right-Wing Authoritarianism as Predictors of Implicit Racial Prejudice
Rowatt, W. C., & Franklin, L. M. (2004) · International Journal for the Psychology of Religion · doi:10.1207/s15327582ijpr1402_4 · Cited by 124
Enhancing radical innovation performance through intellectual capital components
Agostini, L., & Nosella, A. (2017) · Journal of Intellectual Capital · doi:10.1108/jic-10-2016-0103 · Cited by 123
Parental Smoking Cessation and Adolescent Smoking
Chassin, L. (2002) · Journal of Pediatric Psychology · doi:10.1093/jpepsy/27.6.485 · Cited by 120
The mixed impact of medical school on medical students’ implicit and explicit weight bias
Phelan, S. M., Puhl, R. M., Burke, S. E., Hardeman, R. R., Dovidio, J. F., Nelson, D. B., Przedworski, J. M., Burgess, D. J., Perry, S., Yeazel, M. W., et al. (2015) · Medical Education · doi:10.1111/medu.12770 · Cited by 119
How Dissociated Are Implicit and Explicit Racial Attitudes? A Bogus Pipeline Approach
Nier, J. A. (2004) · Group Processes & Intergroup Relations · doi:10.1177/1368430205048615 · Cited by 118
Public values: citizens’ perspective
Bozeman, B. L. (2018) · Public Management Review · doi:10.1080/14719037.2018.1529878 · Cited by 131
A review of household water demand management and consumption measurement
Abu-Bakar, H., Williams, L., & Hallett, S. H. (2021) · Journal of Cleaner Production · doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.125872 · Cited by 118
Construct jangle or construct mangle? Thinking straight about (nonredundant) psychological constructs
Hodson, G. (2021) · Journal of Theoretical Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/jts5.120 · Cited by 129
An integrated threat model of explicit and implicit attitudes
Aberson, C. L., & Gaffney, A. M. (2008) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.582 · Cited by 118
Racial Bias in Neural Empathic Responses to Pain
Contreras-Huerta, L. S., Baker, K. S., Reynolds, K. J., Batalha, L., & Cunnington, R. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0084001 · Cited by 116
Temporal Stability of the Implicit Association Test-Anxiety
Egloff, B., Schwerdtfeger, A. R., & Schmukle, S. C. (2005) · Journal of Personality Assessment · doi:10.1207/s15327752jpa8401_14 · Cited by 117
Reliability of the Go/No Go Association Task
Williams, B. J., & Kaufmann, L. M. (2012) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2012.03.001 · Cited by 112
Positive Associations Among Interpersonal Contact, Motivation, and Implicit and Explicit Attitudes Toward Gay Men
Lemm, K. M. (2006) · Journal of Homosexuality · doi:10.1300/j082v51n02_05 · Cited by 112
Gender differences in implicit prejudice
Ekehammar, B., Akrami, N., & Araya, T. (2003) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/s0191-8869(02)00132-0 · Cited by 119
(Why) do I think what you think? Epistemic social tuning and implicit prejudice.
Lun, J., Sinclair, S. A., Whitchurch, E., & Glenn, C. R. (2007) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.93.6.957 · Cited by 116
An implicit measure of anti-gay attitudes: Prospective associations with emotion regulation strategies and psychological distress
Hatzenbuehler, M. L., Dovidio, J. F., Nolen–Hoeksema, S., & Phills, C. E. (2009) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2009.08.005 · Cited by 131
Intact performance on an indirect measure of race bias following amygdala damage
Phelps, E. A., Cannistraci, C. J., & Cunningham, W. A. (2003) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/s0028-3932(02)00150-1 · Cited by 109
Self-citation
The influence of general mental ability, self-esteem and family socioeconomic status on leadership role occupancy and leader advancement: The moderating role of gender
Li, W., Arvey, R. D., & Song, Z. (2011) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2011.04.009 · Cited by 115
Implicit Infantilizing Attitudes About Disability
Robey, K. L., Beckley, L., & Kirschner, M. (2006) · Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities · doi:10.1007/s10882-006-9027-3 · Cited by 109
Are Medical Students Aware of Their Anti-Obesity Bias?
Miller, D. P., Spangler, J., Vitolins, M., Davis, S. W., Ip, E., Marion, G., & Crandall, S. (2013) · Academic medicine : journal of the Association of American Medical Colleges · doi:10.1097/acm.0b013e318294f817 · Cited by 102
The base rate principle and the fairness principle in social judgment
Cao, J., & Banaji, M. (2016) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America · doi:10.1073/pnas.1524268113 · Cited by 93
Self-citation
Agreeableness and the prolonged spatial processing of antisocial and prosocial information
Wilkowski, B. M., Robinson, M. D., & Meier, B. P. (2006) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2005.12.004 · Cited by 113
The Scientific Impotence Excuse: Discounting Belief‐Threatening Scientific Abstracts
Munro, G. D. (2010) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2010.00588.x · Cited by 114
Indirect Assessment of Cognitions of Child Sexual Abusers With the Implicit Association Test
Nunes, K. L., Firestone, P., & Baldwin, M. W. (2007) · Criminal Justice and Behavior · doi:10.1177/0093854806291703 · Cited by 104
Explicit versus implicit country stereotypes as predictors of product preferences: Insights from the stereotype content model
Diamantopoulos, A., Florack, A., Halkias, G., & Palcu, J. (2017) · Journal of International Business Studies · doi:10.1057/s41267-017-0085-9 · Cited by 103
Twenty-Five Years of Research Using Implicit Measures
Gawronski, B., Houwer, J. D., & Sherman, J. W. (2020) · Social Cognition · doi:10.1521/soco.2020.38.supp.s1 · Cited by 114
Does the Implicit Association Test for assessing anxiety measure trait and state variance?
Schmukle, S. C., & Egloff, B. (2004) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.525 · Cited by 105
Implicit Association Test: Separating Transsituationally Stable and Variable Components of Attitudes toward Gay Men
Steffens, M. C., & Buchner, A. (2003) · Experimental Psychology (formerly Zeitschrift für Experimentelle Psychologie) · doi:10.1027//1618-3169.50.1.33 · Cited by 101
The Sorting Paired Features Task
Bar‐Anan, Y., Nosek, B. A., & Vianello, M. (2009) · Experimental Psychology (formerly Zeitschrift für Experimentelle Psychologie) · doi:10.1027/1618-3169.56.5.329 · Cited by 102
Automatic affective responses to smoking cues.
Payne, B. K., McClernon, F. J., & Dobbins, I. G. (2007) · Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1037/1064-1297.15.4.400 · Cited by 105
Unspoken Politics: Implicit Attitudes and Political Thinking
Pérez, E. O. (2016) · Cited by 99
Math = male, me = female, therefore math ≠ me.
Nosek, B. A., Banaji, M. R., & Greenwald, A. G. (2002) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.83.1.44 · Cited by 99
Self-citation
Social Justice in Our Minds, Homes, and Society: The Nature, Causes, and Consequences of Implicit Bias
Rudman, L. A. (2004) · Social Justice Research · doi:10.1023/b:sore.0000027406.32604.f6 · Cited by 98
Culture and Cultural Worldviews: Do Verbal Descriptions about Culture Reflect Anything Other Than Verbal Descriptions of Culture?
Matsumoto, D. (2006) · Culture & Psychology · doi:10.1177/1354067x06061592 · Cited by 97
Implicit Social Cognition and Law
Lane, K. A., Kang, J., & Banaji, M. R. (2007) · Annual Review of Law and Social Science · doi:10.1146/annurev.lawsocsci.3.081806.112748 · Cited by 96
Self-citation
Investigating American and Chinese Subjects’ explicit and implicit perceptions of AI-Generated artistic work
Wu, Y., Mou, Y., Li, Z., & Xu, K. (2019) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2019.106186 · Cited by 99
Gender differences in implicit weight identity
Grover, V. P., Keel, P. K., & Mitchell, J. P. (2003) · International Journal of Eating Disorders · doi:10.1002/eat.10167 · Cited by 92
Implicit Attitudes Toward Nuclear Power and Mobile Phone Base Stations: Support for the Affect Heuristic
Siegrist, M., Keller, C., & Cousin, M. (2006) · Risk Analysis · doi:10.1111/j.1539-6924.2006.00797.x · Cited by 92
On Measuring Community Participation in Research
Khodyakov, D., Stockdale, S. E., Jones, A., Mango, J. D., Jones, F., & Lizaola, E. (2012) · Health Education & Behavior · doi:10.1177/1090198112459050 · Cited by 92
Workplace Ageism: Discovering Hidden Bias
Malinen, S. K., & Johnston, L. C. (2013) · Experimental Aging Research · doi:10.1080/0361073x.2013.808111 · Cited by 109
Implicit and explicit measures of alcohol and smoking cognitions.
McCarthy, D. M., & Thompsen, D. M. (2006) · Psychology of Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1037/0893-164x.20.4.436 · Cited by 91
Implicit Racial Biases in Preschool Children and Adults From Asia and Africa
Qian, M. K., Heyman, G. D., Quinn, P. C., Messi, F. A., Fu, G., & Lee, K. (2015) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.12442 · Cited by 90
Understanding Implicit Bias: Putting the Criticism into Perspective
Brownstein, M., Madva, A., & Gawronski, B. (2020) · Pacific philosophical quarterly · doi:10.1111/papq.12302 · Cited by 98
The relationship between level of training, implicit bias, and multicultural competency among counselor trainees.
Boysen, G. A., & Vogel, D. L. (2008) · Training and Education in Professional Psychology · doi:10.1037/1931-3918.2.2.103 · Cited by 92
The Validity of Implicit Association Test (IAT) Measures of Sexual Attraction to Children: A Meta-Analysis
Babchishin, K., Nunes, K., & Hermann, C. A. (2013) · Archives of Sexual Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10508-012-0022-8 · Cited by 92

Authors: Cunningham, W. A., Preacher, K. J., & Banaji, M. R.
Affiliations: Yale University (US)
The Ohio State University (US)
Corresponding author: Cunningham, William A.
ORCID: Cunningham, William A.
Preacher, Kristopher J.
Banaji, Mahzarin R.
Venue: Psychological Science
Publisher: SAGE Publications
Published: 2001-03
Volume: 12
Issue: 2
Pages: 163-170
ISSN: 0956-7976 (ISSN-L)
1467-9280
DOI: 10.1111/1467-9280.00328
OpenAlex: W2098098526
Cited by: 968
References: 40
Citations by year: 2026: 14 · 2025: 18 · 2024: 53 · 2023: 62 · 2022: 33 · 2021: 56 · 2020: 42 · 2019: 30 · 2018: 36 · 2017: 51 · 2016: 64 · 2015: 41 · 2014: 39 · 2013: 47 · 2012: 36
FWCI: 113.92
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: green
hdl.handle.net
Licence: other-oa
journals.sagepub.com/page/policies/text-and-data-mining-license (tdm)
Locations: Psychological Science (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
KU ScholarWorks (University of Kansas) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
Funders: National Institute of Mental Health (MH-57672, R01MH057672)
Topics: Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Racial and Ethnic Identity Research
Keywords: implicit attitudes, reliability statistics, convergent validity, test-retest stability, Implicit Association Test, affective priming, racial attitudes, latent factor structure, response latency
MeSH terms: Adult, Attitude, Factor Analysis, Statistical, Female, Humans, Male, Personality Tests, Prejudice, Projective Techniques, Psychometrics, Semantic Differential, Reproducibility of Results

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review

Implicit Attitude Measures: Consistency, Stability, and Convergent Validity

Abstract

Overview

Integrity signals

Verification

Claims the paper makes

Claims other papers make about this one

Citations

Cites

Cited by

Related

Metadata

Record

About these checks