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Media Multitasking Effects on Cognitive vs. Attitudinal Outcomes: A Meta-Analysis
Abstract
Despite the recent proliferation of research on media multitasking, a comprehensive meta-analytic review of its effects has not been available. Based on a review of 49 media multitasking studies, this meta-analysis showed that multitasking has negative effects on cognitive outcomes, whereas it has positive effects on attitudinal (or persuasion-related) outcomes. Moderator analyses suggested that the negative effects of multitasking on cognitive outcomes varied by (a) user control, (b) task relevance, and (c) task contiguity. Specifically, multitasking had greater effects (a) when media users had less control over the media, (b) for tasks that were unrelated, and (c) for tasks that were physically distant. Implications for future multitasking research are further discussed.
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“many studies found that media multitasking is associated with poor cognitive functioning. Notably, it leads to a reduced attentional control ability (36, 37).”
From Media multitasking, depression, and anxiety of college students: Serial mediating effects of attention control and negative information attentional bias (2022) · cites this paper as [36]
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ResultKoessmeier, C., & Büttner, O. B. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.711416 · Cited by 106
“Previous studies on multitasking have consistently demonstrated negative effects of distraction on performance (Jeong and Hwang, 2016), on academic performance among students (Junco and Cotten, 2012; Giunchiglia et al., 2018) and on well-being (e.g., Brooks, 2015).”
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Segijn, C. M., Voorveld, H. A. M., Vandeberg, L., & Smit, E. G. (2017) · Human Communication Research · doi:10.1111/hcre.12106 · Cited by 61
Comprehensively Summarizing What Distracts Students from Online Learning: A Literature Review
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“Meanwhile, a meta-analysis was conducted by Jeong and Hwang [101] to summarize the overall effect of media multitasking on cognitive outcomes.”
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“Based on the search strategies used in previous media multitasking literature reviews in various research domains (van Der Schuur et al., 2015; Jeong and Hwang, 2016; Segijn and Eisend, 2019), relevant keywords were identified.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialThe effect of 360-degree rotatable product images on purchase intention
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InfluentialEffects of background music on evaluations of visual images
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“These differences extend past media use and, therefore, may impact cognitive outcomes (Jeong & Hwang, 2016).”
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Segijn, C. M., Voorveld, H. A. M., & Smit, E. G. (2016) · Journal of Advertising · doi:10.1080/00913367.2016.1172386 · Cited by 54
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Netiquette as Digital Social Norms
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“Beyond exhaustion and stress, multi-tasking in digitally mediated contexts has also been shown to reduce cognitive performance (Jeong & Hwang, 2016; Uncapher et al., 2016) as well as the overall ability to focus on tasks (Baumgartner & Sumter, 2017; Ophir et al., 2009; Yeykelis et al., 2014).”
BackgroundTweet, Retweet, Favorite: The Impact of Twitter Use on Enjoyment and Sports Viewing
Smith, L. R., Pegoraro, A. L., & Cruikshank, S. A. (2019) · Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media · doi:10.1080/08838151.2019.1568805 · Cited by 44
“…on sports and social media has been complemented by research addressing media multitasking, specifically second screen viewing, where individuals view television as the primary task while engaging in another task on a secondary screen (Jeong & Hwang, 2016; Pilotta, Schultz, Drenik, & Rist, 2004).”
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“However, the results on affective outcomes are different; Jeong and Hwang (2016) found a positive relation, while the current meta-analysis finds no relation.”
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“Multitasking or dual ‐ tasking is defined by (Jeong & Hwang, 2016) as “performing two or more tasks simultaneously”.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialHow Related Multiscreening Could Positively Affect Advertising Outcomes
Segijn, C. M., Voorveld, H. A. M., & Smit, E. G. (2017) · Journal of Advertising · doi:10.1080/00913367.2017.1372233 · Cited by 43
“It is important to address these limitations because a meta-analysis showed that both task contiguity and user control could influence multitasking effects (Jeong and Hwang 2016).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialInsight into everyday media use with multiple screens
Segijn, C. M., Voorveld, H. A. M., Vandeberg, L., Pennekamp, S. F., & Smit, E. G. (2017) · International Journal of Advertising · doi:10.1080/02650487.2017.1348042 · Cited by 43
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Baumgartner, S. E., & Sumter, S. R. (2017) · Journal of Children and Media · doi:10.1080/17482798.2017.1304971 · Cited by 43
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“Further, a meta-analysis of 49 studies demonstrated that multitasking had a greater negative impact on cognitive outcomes when multitaskers had less control over the task (Jeong & Hwang, 2016).”
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Guitart, I. A., Hervet, G., & Hildebrand, D. (2018) · International Journal of Advertising · doi:10.1080/02650487.2018.1473023 · Cited by 26
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“In contrast, positive effects are found on attitudinal advertising outcomes, such as brand attitudes and lower degrees of irritation toward the ads (e.g., Beuckels, Cauberghe, and Hudders 2017; Jeong and Hwang 2012; Jeong and Hwang 2016; Segijn, Voorveld, and Smit 2016).”
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“…multitasking behavior in the “real world”.4 Furthermore, we included an item assessing attention given to the advertisement and attention allocation to explore any mediating effect of limited attention during media multitasking situations on brand attitude (Jeong and Hwang 2016; see “Appendix”).”
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“Studies have shown that multitasking effects are greater when user-control is higher (Jeong & Hwang, 2016; Ralph, Seli, Wilson, & Smilek, 2018).”
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“User control is defined as the potential of media users to modify their environment (Overmars and Poels 2015) and the ability to choose or alter the information flow (Jeong and Hwang 2016).”
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“As predicted by the theory of threaded cognition, meta-analyses have shown that multi-taskers remember less when they combine unrelated tasks, compared to related ones (Jeong & Hwang, 2016; Segijn & Eisend, 2019).”
BackgroundUses and gratifications of multiscreen news consumption among Spanish youth
Cambra, U. C., Niño-González, J.-I., & De-Marchis, G. P. (2021) · Communication & Society · doi:10.15581/003.34.2.15-29 · Cited by 14
“Research on multitasking by Jeong and Hwang (2016) evidenced that performing several tasks simultaneously related to media causes some negative effects on results (i.e., less efficiency) but positive effects on persuasion (i.e., greater persuasion since information is processed more superficially).”
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“In addition, Jeong and Hwang (2016) reported that the task relevance between multiple tasks significantly moderates media multitaskers ’ cognitive outcomes (e.g. factual recall, comprehension); cognitive outcomes decrease when two tasks are irrelevant.”
BackgroundMedia Multitasking and the Role of Task Relevance in Background Advertising Processing
Smit, E. G., Segijn, C. M., van de Giessen, W., Wottrich, V. M., Vandeberg, L., & Voorveld, H. A. M. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-18731-6_15 · Cited by 12
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“In the multitasking literature, only a few research examined advertising outcomes from the secondary task (Jeong & Hwang, 2016; Smit et al., 2017).”
BackgroundRomero, M., Altamura, L., Salmerón, L., & Delgado, P. (2024) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2024.102593 · Cited by 20
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“We hypothesised (H4) that phone and email will be more strongly associated with positive cognitive functioning than social media, as prior research has identified negative effects of social media on sleep, cognitive failures and problems with media multi-tasking (Hong et al., 2016; Jeong and Hwang, 2016; Scott and Woo…”
BackgroundThe impact of sequential versus simultaneous media exposure on online advertising effectiveness
Theodorakioglou, F., Hatzithomas, L., & Boutsouki, C. (2022) · Journal of Marketing Communications · doi:10.1080/13527266.2022.2154055 · Cited by 8
“Limited attention can either enhance or reduce persuasion by suppressing counterarguments or decreasing comprehension respectively (Jeong and Hwang 2016).”
BackgroundInfluentialCurrent research trends in multitasking: a bibliometric mapping approach
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“Jeong and Hwang [61] found that media multitasking hindered systematic information processing resulting in reduced levels of attention, comprehension, and recall.”
The brain digitalization: it's all happening so fast!
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Hwang, Y., & Jeong, S. (2019) · Media Psychology · doi:10.1080/15213269.2019.1659152 · Cited by 6
Self-citationThe influence of media multitasking on advertising effectiveness
Garaus, M. (2019) · AMS Review · doi:10.1007/s13162-019-00155-7 · Cited by 8
The neurobiology of focus and distraction: The case for incorporating mindfulness into leadership
Mohapel, P. (2018) · Healthcare Management Forum · doi:10.1177/0840470417746414 · Cited by 6
Engagement in an Age of Distraction
Somani, P. P., Iyer, V. H., Wani, P. S., & Tambuskar, D. P. (2025) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/979-8-3693-8089-5.ch010 · Cited by 6
How cognitive elaboration fosters knowledge acquisition on social media—a field experiment
Frauhammer, L. T., & Dreston, J. H. (2025) · Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication · doi:10.1093/jcmc/zmaf014 · Cited by 5
Wannagat, W., Martin, T., Nieding, G., Rohleder, N., & Becker, L. (2024) · Media Psychology · doi:10.1080/15213269.2023.2298686 · Cited by 9
“A meta-analysis by Jeong and Hwang (2016) that synthesized findings of media multi-vs. single-tasking on cognitive performance (comprehension or memory) in experimental studies found that older adults showed better media multitasking performance than younger adults.”
Wannagat, W., Martin, T., Nieding, G., Rohleder, N., & Becker, L. (2024) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2024.108313 · Cited by 8
Luo, J., Cao, J., Chan, K. K. S., & Yeung, P. (2025) · International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2025.2476708 · Cited by 5
“This is because media multitasking is not only a relevant media use behavior pattern but also has effects on attentional and cognitive outcomes (S.-H. Jeong & Hwang, 2016), like academic and reading performance (e.g., Levine et al., 2007; Lin et al., 2011; Luo et al., 2020).”
The relationship between media multitasking and creativity: Explanations from multiple perspectives
Ziying, L. I., Jiajing, L. I., jiang, J., Lei, X., & Zelong, M. E. N. G. (2023) · Advances in Psychological Science · doi:10.3724/sp.j.1042.2023.01195 · Cited by 4
Do Rising Opportunity Costs Lead to Increases in Media Multitasking Over Time?
Drody, A. C., Ralph, B. C. W., Danckert, J. A., & Smilek, D. (2023) · Media Psychology · doi:10.1080/15213269.2023.2227562 · Cited by 6
“For instance, Jeong and Hwang (2016) conducted a meta-analysis on studies that compared outcomes between participants who completed a primary task while media multitasking and those who completed the same task without multitasking.”
BackgroundLosing Awareness of Our Surroundings?
Riggs, E. E., & Knobloch‐Westerwick, S. (2023) · Journal of Media Psychology Theories Methods and Applications · doi:10.1027/1864-1105/a000400 · Cited by 5
Drivers of podcast usage other than use & gratification: A task–technology fit perspective
Cheng, J. C., Hsu, J. S., Shen, H.-J., & Chen, C.-L. (2025) · Electronic Commerce Research and Applications · doi:10.1016/j.elerap.2025.101515 · Cited by 5
Costello, F. (2020) · Continuity & Resilience Review · doi:10.1108/crr-05-2020-0019 · Cited by 4
Toward a multilevel framework of multicommunicating: Insights from a systematic review
Jiang, J., Cameron, A., & Opoku-Mensah, E. (2023) · Computers in Human Behavior Reports · doi:10.1016/j.chbr.2023.100349 · Cited by 4
Kanihan, S. F., Meirick, P. C., & Segijn, C. M. (2020) · Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly · doi:10.1177/1077699020960066 · Cited by 4
“Scholars (e.g., Duff & Segijn, 2019; Jeong & Hwang, 2016; Wang et al., 2015) use cognitive resource theories to explain this negative relationship (see the Limited Capacity Model of Mediated Message Processing, Lang, 2006).”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Jeong, S.-H., & Hwang, Y.
- Affiliations
- Korea University (KR)
- Myongji University (KR)
- Corresponding author
- Hwang, Yoori
- ORCID
- Jeong, Se-Hoon
- Venue
- Human Communication Research
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2016-07-08
- Volume
- 42
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 599-618
- ISSN
- 0360-3989 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2487465918
- Semantic Scholar
- 82ce95080fda9d715fef1374214cd15e642e3e8c
- Cited by
- 154
- References
- 63
- Citations by year
- 2026: 14 · 2025: 20 · 2024: 9 · 2023: 16 · 2022: 17 · 2021: 20 · 2020: 17 · 2019: 20 · 2018: 6 · 2017: 14 · 2016: 1
- FWCI
- 2.02
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Human Communication Research (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Information Systems and Management › Personal Information Management and User Behavior
- Social Sciences › Communication › Media Influence and Health
- Social Sciences › Communication › Media and Digital Communication
- Keywords
- media multitasking, cognitive outcomes, persuasion, user control, task relevance, media influence
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