Democracy and the Violation of Human Rights: A Statistical Analysis from 1976 to 1996
Abstract
Most studies posit and identify a linear and negative relationship between democracy and the violation of human rights. Some research challenges this finding, however, suggesting that nonlinear influences exist. Within this article, we examine the structure of the relationship between democracy and repression during the time period from 1976 to 1996. To conduct our analysis, we utilize diverse statistical approaches which are particularly flexible in identifying influences that take a variety of functional forms (specifically LOESS and binary decomposition). Across measures and methodological techniques, we found that below a certain level, democracy has no impact on human rights violations, but above this level democracy influences repression in a negative and roughly linear manner. The implications of this research are discussed within the conclusion.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Democracies and anocracies have long histories of repressive action.
“Likewise, some see democratic uses of digital repression as evidence that authoritarian practices are spreading to non-autocracies (75), but democracies and anocracies have long histories of repressive action (170, 171).”
From Physical and virtual repertoires of contention (2022) · cites this paper as [170]
Cites
Econometric Analysis of Panel Data
Baltagi, B. H. (2021) · Springer Texts in Business and Economics · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-53953-5 · Cited by 15,104 · see citing works
Introductory Econometrics: A Modern Approach
Wooldridge, J. M. (1999) · Cited by 14,354 · see citing works
The third wave: democratization in the late twentieth century
(1992) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.29-4135 · Cited by 7,985 · see citing works
Polyarchy: Participation and Opposition.
Ericson, J., & Dahl, R. A. (1972) · American Quarterly · doi:10.2307/2711442 · Cited by 7,178 · see citing works
What To Do (and Not to Do) with Time-Series Cross-Section Data
Beck, N., & Katz, J. N. (1995) · American Political Science Review · doi:10.2307/2082979 · Cited by 6,840 · see citing works
Bayesian model selection in social research
Raftery, A. E. (1995) · Sociological Methodology · doi:10.2307/271063 · Cited by 6,823 · see citing works
The Origins of Totalitarianism
Arendt, H. (2018) · Princeton University Press eBooks · doi:10.2307/j.ctv19fvzzk.50 · Cited by 5,180 · see citing works
The Rise of Illiberal Democracy
Zakaria, F. (1997) · Foreign Affairs · doi:10.2307/20048274 · Cited by 2,699 · see citing works
Democracy with Adjectives: Conceptual Innovation in Comparative Research
Collier, D., & Levitsky, S. (1997) · World Politics · doi:10.1353/wp.1997.0009 · Cited by 2,132 · see citing works
International Studies Quarterly
(2016) · doi:10.1111/(issn)1468-2478 · Cited by 1,882 · see citing works
Toward a Democratic Civil Peace? Democracy, Political Change, and Civil War, 1816–1992
Hegre, H. (2001) · American Political Science Review · doi:10.1017/s0003055401000119 · Cited by 1,604 · see citing works
Tracking Democracy's Third Wave with the Polity III Data
Jaggers, K., & Gurr, T. R. (1995) · Journal of Peace Research · doi:10.1177/0022343395032004007 · Cited by 1,332 · see citing works
Conceptualizing and Measuring Democracy
Munck, G. L., & Verkuilen, J. (2002) · Comparative Political Studies · doi:10.1177/001041400203500101 · Cited by 1,088 · see citing works
Alvarez, M., Cheibub, J. A., Limongi, F., & Przeworski, A. (1996) · Studies in Comparative International Development · doi:10.1007/bf02719326 · Cited by 969 · see citing works
Repression of Human Rights to Personal Integrity in the 1980s: A Global Analysis
Poe, S. C., & Tate, C. N. (1994) · American Political Science Review · doi:10.2307/2082712 · Cited by 934 · see citing works
Harff, B. (2003) · American Political Science Review · doi:10.1017/s0003055403000522 · Cited by 859 · see citing works
Conceptualizing And Measuring Democracy: Evaluating Alternative Indices
Munck, G. L., & Verkuilen, J. (2002) · Comparative Political Studies · doi:10.1177/0010414002035001001 · Cited by 859 · see citing works
Resort to Arms: International and Civil Wars, 1816-1980
Small, M., & Singer, J. D. (1982) · Virtual Defense Library (Ministerio de Defensa) · Cited by 804 · see citing works
Issues in the Comparative Measurement of Political Democracy
Bollen, K. A. (1980) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.2307/2095172 · Cited by 781 · see citing works
Poe, S. C., Tate, C. N., & Keith, L. C. (1999) · International Studies Quarterly · doi:10.1111/0020-8833.00121 · Cited by 715 · see citing works
Democratization and the Danger of War
Mansfield, E. D., & Snyder, J. (1995) · International Security · doi:10.2307/2539213 · Cited by 703 · see citing works
A New Dataset for Measuring Democracy, 1810-1998
Vanhanen, T. (2000) · Journal of Peace Research · doi:10.1177/0022343300037002008 · Cited by 676 · see citing works
Davenport, C. (1995) · American Journal of Political Science · doi:10.2307/2111650 · Cited by 623 · see citing works
Self-citationDemocratization and the Danger of War
Wolf, R., Weede, E., Enterline, A. J., Mansfield, E. D., & Snyder, J. (1996) · International Security · doi:10.2307/2539046 · Cited by 607 · see citing works
Cleveland, W. S., Devlin, S. J., & Grosse, E. (1988) · Journal of Econometrics · doi:10.1016/0304-4076(88)90077-2 · Cited by 600 · see citing works
The Origins of Totalitarianism
Oppenheimer, F. M., & Arendt, H. (1954) · The Yale Law Journal · doi:10.2307/793795 · Cited by 558 · see citing works
Income Inequality, Regime Repressiveness, and Political Violence
Muller, E. N. (1985) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.2307/2095339 · Cited by 534 · see citing works
Repression and Dissent: Substitution, Context, and Timing
Moore, W. H. (1998) · American Journal of Political Science · doi:10.2307/2991732 · Cited by 512 · see citing works
Oneal, J. R., & Russett, B. M. (1999) · World Politics · doi:10.1017/s0043887100020013 · Cited by 449 · see citing works
Linz, J. J. (1990) · The Washington Quarterly · doi:10.1080/01636609009445400 · Cited by 435 · see citing works
Veto Players and Institutional Analysis
Tsebelis, G. (2000) · Governance · doi:10.1111/0952-1895.00141 · Cited by 430 · see citing works
Totalitarian Dictatorship and Autocracy.
Buck, P. W., Friedrich, C. J., & Brzeziński, Z. (1957) · American Slavic and East European Review · doi:10.2307/3001187 · Cited by 428 · see citing works
Economic Interdependence and War: A Theory of Trade Expectations
Copeland, D. C. (1996) · International Security · doi:10.1162/isec.20.4.5 · Cited by 423 · see citing works
Krain, M. (1997) · Journal of Conflict Resolution · doi:10.1177/0022002797041003001 · Cited by 402 · see citing works
Gleditsch, K. S., & Ward, M. D. (1997) · Journal of Conflict Resolution · doi:10.1177/0022002797041003002 · Cited by 386 · see citing works
Oneal, J. R., & Russett, B. M. (2015) · SpringerBriefs on pioneers in science and practice · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-13850-3_5 · Cited by 384 · see citing works
Persistence and Change in Political Systems, 1800–1971
Gurr, T. R. (1974) · American Political Science Review · doi:10.2307/1959937 · Cited by 372 · see citing works
Conditions Affecting the Use of Political Repression
Henderson, C. W. (1991) · Journal of Conflict Resolution · doi:10.1177/0022002791035001007 · Cited by 363 · see citing works
Measuring the Level, Pattern, and Sequence of Government Respect for Physical Integrity Rights
Cingranelli, D. L., & Richards, D. L. (1999) · International Studies Quarterly · doi:10.1111/0020-8833.00126 · Cited by 349 · see citing works
Economic and Political Explanations of Human Rights Violations
Mitchell, N. J., & McCormick, J. M. (1988) · World Politics · doi:10.2307/2010315 · Cited by 340 · see citing works
Assessing the Dyadic Nature of the Democratic Peace, 1918–88
Rousseau, D., Gelpi, C. F., Reiter, D., & Huth, P. K. (1996) · American Political Science Review · doi:10.2307/2082606 · Cited by 333 · see citing works
Political Opposition in Western Democracies
Dahl, R. A. (1969) · doi:10.1007/978-1-349-15318-3_26 · Cited by 323 · see citing works
On measuring democracy : its consequences and concomitants
Inkeles, A. (1991) · Transaction Publishers eBooks · Cited by 318 · see citing works
Regan, P. M., & Henderson, E. A. (2002) · Third World Quarterly · doi:10.1080/01436590220108207 · Cited by 277 · see citing works
Coppedge, M., & Reinicke, W. H. (1990) · Studies in Comparative International Development · doi:10.1007/bf02716905 · Cited by 272 · see citing works
Patterns of Authority: A Structural Basis for Political Inquiry.
Orum, A. M., Eckstein, H., & Gurr, T. R. (1977) · Contemporary Sociology A Journal of Reviews · doi:10.2307/2066447 · Cited by 271 · see citing works
Human Rights and the Democratic Proposition
Davenport, C. (1999) · Journal of Conflict Resolution · doi:10.1177/0022002799043001006 · Cited by 270 · see citing works
Self-citationCoercion and Protest: An Empirical Test in Two Democratic States
Francisco, R. Α. (1996) · American Journal of Political Science · doi:10.2307/2111747 · Cited by 263 · see citing works
Marshall, M. G., Gurr, T. R., Davenport, C., & Jaggers, K. (2002) · Comparative Political Studies · doi:10.1177/001041400203500103 · Cited by 253 · see citing works
Self-citationGurr, T. R., Jaggers, K., & Moore, W. H. (1990) · Studies in Comparative International Development · doi:10.1007/bf02716906 · Cited by 244 · see citing works
Life-Integrity Violations and Democracy in the World, 1987
Fein, H. (1995) · Human Rights Quarterly · doi:10.1353/hrq.1995.0001 · Cited by 224 · see citing works
Young, F. W., de Leeuw, J., & Takane, Y. (1976) · Psychometrika · doi:10.1007/bf02296972 · Cited by 223 · see citing works
George, E. I. (2005) · Encyclopedia of Statistical Sciences · doi:10.1002/0471667196.ess0989.pub2 · Cited by 195 · see citing works
A Global Analysis of the Effect of Political Regime Changes on Life Integrity Violations, 1977-93
Zanger, S. C. (2000) · Journal of Peace Research · doi:10.1177/0022343300037002006 · Cited by 178 · see citing works
Hawthorn, G. (1991) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511621222 · Cited by 168 · see citing works
Davenport, C. (1996) · The Journal of Politics · doi:10.2307/2960436 · Cited by 159 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Weight of the Past: Exploring Lagged Determinants of Political Repression
Davenport, C. (1996) · Political Research Quarterly · doi:10.1177/106591299604900207 · Cited by 143 · see citing works
Self-citationPolitical Repression in Modern America: FROM 1870 TO 1976
Goldstein, R. J. (2001) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 137 · see citing works
Political Terror in Communist Systems
Roucek, J. S., Dallin, A., & Breslauer, G. W. (1971) · The Russian Review · doi:10.2307/127915 · Cited by 136 · see citing works
Maat, E. V. D. (2024) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781003079934-3 · Cited by 133 · see citing works
Data Theory and Dimensional Analysis
Jacoby, W. G. (1991) · Sage eBooks · doi:10.4135/9781412983860 · Cited by 130 · see citing works
Human Rights Violations, Umbrella Concepts, and Empirical Analysis
McCormick, J. M., & Mitchell, N. J. (1997) · World Politics · doi:10.1017/s0043887100008030 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
Plausible Worlds; Possibility and Understanding in History and the Social Sciences.
Fain, H., & Hawthorn, G. (1993) · History and Theory · doi:10.2307/2505331 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
Nonparametric Simple Regression
Fox, J. (2000) · Sage eBooks · doi:10.4135/9781412985307 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
Multiple and Generalized Nonparametric Regression
(2020) · SAGE Research Methods Foundations · doi:10.4135/9781526421036885885 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
Multiple and Generalized Nonparametric Regression
Fox, J. (2000) · Sage eBooks · doi:10.4135/9781412985154 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Freedom in the World: 1996-1997: The Annual Survey of Political Rights and Civil Liberties
Karatnycky, A. (1998) · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Levels of Measurement and Political Research: An Optimistic View
Jacoby, W. G. (1999) · American Journal of Political Science · doi:10.2307/2991794 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
The Regulation of Political Conflict
Ziegenhagen, E. A. (1986) · Cited by 67 · see citing works
PERILOUS PROXY : HUMAN RIGHTS AND THE PRESENCE OF NATIONAL ELECTIONS
Richards, D. L. (1999) · Social Science Quarterly · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Davenport, C. (1997) · Electoral Studies · doi:10.1016/s0261-3794(97)00032-2 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Self-citationHuman Rights and Developing Countries
Webster, C., & Cingranelli, D. L. (2019) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780429449468-14 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Polity Iv, 1800-1999: Comments on Munck and Verkuilen
Marshall, M. G., Gurr, T. R., Davenport, C., & Jaggers, K. (2002) · Comparative Political Studies · doi:10.1177/0010414002035001003 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Self-citationUrbanization, roads, and rural population change in the Ecuadorian Andes
Rudel, T. K., & Richards, S. (1990) · Studies in Comparative International Development · doi:10.1007/bf02687180 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Bryson, L. (1949) · Political Science Quarterly · doi:10.2307/2144810 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Totalitarian Dictatorship and Autocracy
Schorske, C. E., Friedrich, C. J., & Brzeziński, Z. (1958) · The American Historical Review · doi:10.2307/1849552 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Regime Change and the Coherence of European Governments
Bermeo, N. G., & Lichbach, M. I. (1987) · The Journal of Interdisciplinary History · doi:10.2307/204740 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Ward, M. D. (2002) · Comparative Political Studies · doi:10.1177/001041400203500104 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
DeGre, G. L. (1946) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.2307/2087259 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
State Repression and Political Order
Davenport, C. (2007) · Annual Review of Political Science · doi:10.1146/annurev.polisci.10.101405.143216 · Cited by 1,564 · see citing works
Self-citationRespect for Human Rights has Improved Over Time: Modeling the Changing Standard of Accountability
FARISS, C. J. (2014) · American Political Science Review · doi:10.1017/s0003055414000070 · Cited by 706 · see citing works
State Repression and the Domestic Democratic Peace
Davenport, C. (2007) · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511510021 · Cited by 549 · see citing works
Self-citationAn Empirical Evaluation of Explanations for State Repression
HILL, D. W., & JONES, Z. M. (2014) · American Political Science Review · doi:10.1017/s0003055414000306 · Cited by 450 · see citing works
Kim, H., & Sikkink, K. (2010) · International Studies Quarterly · doi:10.1111/j.1468-2478.2010.00621.x · Cited by 401 · see citing works
Frantz, E., & Kendall-Taylor, A. (2014) · Journal of Peace Research · doi:10.1177/0022343313519808 · Cited by 266 · see citing works
Earl, J. (2022) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.abl8198 · Cited by 250 · see citing works
Fight the Youth: Youth bulges and state repression
Nordås, R., & Davenport, C. (2013) · American Journal of Political Science · doi:10.1111/ajps.12025 · Cited by 208 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Assault on Civil Society: Explaining State Crackdown on NGOs
Chaudhry, S. (2022) · International Organization · doi:10.1017/s0020818321000473 · Cited by 148 · see citing works
Taming the Gods: How Religious Conflict Shapes State Repression
Henne, P. S., & Klocek, J. (2019) · Journal of Conflict Resolution · doi:10.1177/0022002717728104 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Is There More Violence in the Middle?
Jones, Z. M., & Lupu, Y. (2018) · American Journal of Political Science · doi:10.1111/ajps.12373 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Hultquist, P. (2017) · Conflict Management and Peace Science · doi:10.1177/0738894215604972 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
- Authors
- Davenport, C., & Armstrong, D. A.
- Affiliations
- University of Maryland, College Park (US)
- Corresponding author
- Davenport, Christian
- ORCID
- Davenport, Christian
- Venue
- American Journal of Political Science
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2004-06-08
- Volume
- 48
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 538-554
- ISSN
- 0092-5853 (ISSN-L)
- 1540-5907
- OpenAlex
- W2143395739
- Cited by
- 652
- References
- 79
- Citations by year
- 2026: 10 · 2025: 19 · 2024: 26 · 2023: 34 · 2022: 41 · 2021: 29 · 2020: 72 · 2019: 36 · 2018: 29 · 2017: 33 · 2016: 39 · 2015: 28 · 2014: 33 · 2013: 37 · 2012: 30
- FWCI
- 48.13
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- American Journal of Political Science (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Political Conflict and Governance
- Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › Political Theory and Democracy
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Memory, violence, and history
- Keywords
- democracy, human rights violations, political repression, nonlinear effects, loess, binary decomposition, authoritarianism
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
