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Cited by 910Soft Robotics and ApplicationsMechanics and Biomechanics StudiesComparative Animal Anatomy Studies

Tongues, Tentacles and Trunks: the Biomechanics of Movement in Muscular-Hydrostats

KIER, WILLIAM M., SMITH, KATHLEEN K.·1985·Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society
DOI 10.1111/j.1096-3642.1985.tb01178.x
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Abstract

Muscular-hydrostats, muscular organs which lack typical systems of skeletal support, include the tongues of mammals and lizards, the arms and tentacles of cephalopod molluscs and the trunks of elephants. In this paper the means by which such organs produce elongation, shortening, bending and torsion are discussed. The most important biomechanical feature of muscular-hydrostats is that their volume is constant, so that any decrease in one dimension will cause a compensatory increase in at least one other dimension. Elongation of a muscular-hydrostat is produced by contraction of transverse, circular or radial muscles which decrease the cross-section. Shortening is produced by contraction of longitudinal muscles. The relation between length and width of a constant volume structure allows amplification of muscle force or displacement in muscular-hydrostats and other hydrostatic systems. Bending requires simultaneous contraction of longitudinal and antagonistic circular, transverse or radial muscles. In bending, one muscle mass acts as an effector of movement while the alternate muscle mass provides support for that movement. Torsion is produced by contraction of muscles which wrap the muscular-hydrostat in a helical fashion.

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  • The octopus's arms, like elephant trunks, earthworm bodies, and vertebrate tongues, are muscular hydrostats.

    “The octopus’s arms, like elephant trunks, earthworm bodies, and vertebrate tongues, are muscular hydrostats (Kier and Smith, 1985; Kier and Stella, 2007).”

    From Lessons for Robotics From the Control Architecture of the Octopus (2022) · cites this paper as Kier and Smith, 1985

  • The octopus has a large number of locally controlled degrees of freedom; each sucker is controlled by local neural circuitry within the arms, which also innervates and activates surrounding arm musculature.

    “The octopus also has a large number of locally controlled degrees of freedom. Each sucker is controlled by local neural circuitry within the arms. In addition to controlling the sucker pose, this circuitry also innervates and activates the surrounding arm musculature (Gutfreund et al., 2006), which generates the forces and shape of the arm (Kier and Smith, 1985).”

    From Lessons for Robotics From the Control Architecture of the Octopus (2022) · cites this paper as Kier and Smith, 1985

  • The interplay of the three muscle groups and the lack of inherently rigid structure equips the arm with its remarkable flexibility.

    “The interplay of the three muscle groups and the lack of inherently rigid structure equips the arm with its remarkable flexibility (Kier and Smith, 1985; Kier and Stella, 2007; Kennedy et al., 2020).”

    From Lessons for Robotics From the Control Architecture of the Octopus (2022) · cites this paper as Kier and Smith, 1985

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Authors
KIER, W. M., & SMITH, K. K.
Affiliations
  • Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (US)
  • Duke Medical Center (US)
ORCID
Venue
Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society
Publisher
Oxford University Press (OUP)
Published
1985-04
Volume
83
Issue
4
Pages
307-324
ISSN
0024-4082 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1111/j.1096-3642.1985.tb01178.x
OpenAlex
W2067243719
Cited by
910
References
0
Citations by year
2026: 36 · 2025: 41 · 2024: 33 · 2023: 42 · 2022: 40 · 2021: 42 · 2020: 44 · 2019: 43 · 2018: 35 · 2017: 31 · 2016: 28 · 2015: 44 · 2014: 25 · 2013: 37 · 2012: 42
FWCI
5.44
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
closed
Licence
doi.wiley.com/10.1002/tdm_license_1 (tdm, 11110 d)
Locations
Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society (publishedVersion)
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Biomedical Engineering › Soft Robotics and Applications
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Biomedical Engineering › Mechanics and Biomechanics Studies
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Urology › Comparative Animal Anatomy Studies
Keywords
muscular hydrostat, biomechanics of movement, elephant trunk, muscle contraction, bending, torsion, antagonist muscles

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