Cited by 476Psychological Testing and AssessmentPsychometric Methodologies and TestingPersonality Traits and Psychology

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CORRELATING PERSONS INSTEAD OF TESTS

STEPHENSON, W.·1935·Journal of Personality

DOI 10.1111/j.1467-6494.1935.tb02022.x

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OBVERSE ANALYSIS OF PERSONALITY
Moore, T. V., Stafford, J. W., & Hsü, E. H. (1947) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1947.tb01074.x · Cited by 4
A validation study of the Taylor manifest anxiety scale
Hoyt, D. P., & MAGOON, T. M. (1954) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/1097-4679(195410)10:4 · Cited by 65
Une nouvelle méthode d'analyse factorielle pour la typologie des consommateurs
Baumgartner, G. (1989) · Recherche et Applications en Marketing (French Edition) · doi:10.1177/076737018900400302 · Cited by 4
Background Characteristics, Attitudes, and Self-Concepts of Air Force Psychiatric Casualties from Southeast Asia**The views expressed herien are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the U.S. Air Force or the Department of Defence.
Wallen, V. (1969) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-119550-2.50014-8 · Cited by 4
Perspectives for multifunctional landscapes in the Amazon : Analyzing farmers’ strategies, perceptions, and scenarios in an agricultural frontier
Pinillos, D. (2021) · doi:10.18174/538979 · Cited by 4
Examining framings of geoengineering using Q methodology
Cairns, R. (2013) · Figshare · Cited by 4
Reasons for Outdoor Tanning in Adults: Q Methodology Identifies Three Types of Tanners
Bergmann, C., Konkel, T., Görig, T., et al. (2025) · Journal of Skin Cancer · doi:10.1155/jskc/5592331 · Cited by 3
“It was invented in the 1930s by William Stephenson, a psychologist and physicist, and has evolved over the years [20].”
A Q methodology study on factors motivating adaptive reuse in the Nigerian construction industry
Aliu, J., Oke, A. E., Aghimien, D. O., et al. (2025) · International Journal of Building Pathology and Adaptation · doi:10.1108/ijbpa-04-2025-0081 · Cited by 3
More than a buzzword? Mapping interpretations of the ‘polycrisis’
Delannoy, L., Leveugle, J.-C., Maniatakou, S., et al. (2025) · Sustainability Science · doi:10.1007/s11625-025-01790-9 · Cited by 3
“First introduced by Stephenson (1935a, 1935b) and subsequently refined by Brown (1980, 1993), Q-method is a mixed-methods approach used to identify archetypal framings of a focal issue (Ramlo, 2015).”
Static and dynamic evaluation of ideological and political affordances in and beyond language learning and teaching materials: An ecological affordance theory perspective
Qin, L., Jiang, W., & Derakhshan, A. (2026) · Modern Language Journal · doi:10.1111/modl.70027 · Cited by 3
“The second stage employed Q methodology (Stephenson, 1935) to investigate how learners sub-jectively actualize the ideological and political affordances identiﬁed in the static evaluation.”
A longitudinal Q-study to assess changes in students’ perceptions at the time of pandemic
Akhtar‐Danesh, N., Brewer‐Deluce, D., Saini, J. B., et al. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-36003-9 · Cited by 3
Factors motivating blockchain adoption in the construction industry in Thailand
Aksorn, P., Burimat, K., Phansri, B., et al. (2025) · Construction Innovation · doi:10.1108/ci-05-2024-0144 · Cited by 3
Beyond a set of procedures: Reclaiming the philosophical depth of Q methodology
Ramlo, S. (2025) · Theory & Psychology · doi:10.1177/09593543251381239 · Cited by 3
“Stephenson’s letter to Nature is often noted as the introduction of Q to the world (Stephenson, 1935a), and the first published Q study followed soon thereafter (Stephenson, 1935b).”
Women Entering Clinical Psychology: Q‐Sort Narratives of Career Attraction of Female Clinical Psychology Trainees in the UK
Baker, M. C., & Nash, J. (2011) · Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.788 · Cited by 3
Second-Generation Navajo Relocatees: Coping with Land Loss, Cultural Dispossession, and Displacement
Tsosie-Paddock (2018) · Wicazo Sa Review · doi:10.5749/wicazosareview.33.1.0087 · Cited by 3
Singaporean teachers’ views of classroom assessment: Findings from using Q-methodology
Leong, W. S. (2014) · Assessment Matters · doi:10.18296/am.0119 · Cited by 3
Q-Sorting Dynamics -- A Note on a Computer-Mediated Tool and its Added Value to Q Methodology
Gauzente, C., Kuntz, P., Milliat, A., et al. (2021) · Operant Subjectivity · doi:10.22488/okstate.21.100588 · Cited by 3
Developers’ viewpoints to avoid bug-introducing changes
Souza, J., Lima, R., Fonseca, B., Cartaxo, B., Ribeiro, M., Pinto, G., Gheyi, R., & Garcia, A. (2021) · Information and Software Technology · doi:10.1016/j.infsof.2021.106766 · Cited by 3
What treatment outcomes matter in adolescent depression? A Q-study of priority profiles among mental health practitioners in the UK and Chile
Krause, K. R., Calderón, A., Pino, V. G., Edbrooke-Childs, J. H., Moltrecht, B., & Wolpert, M. (2023) · European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s00787-023-02140-9 · Cited by 3
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Ferber, L. (2008) · University of North Florida Digital Commons (University of North Florida) · Cited by 3
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Mandolesi, S., Naspetti, S., & Zanoli, R. (2014) · ECONOMIA AGRO-ALIMENTARE · doi:10.3280/ecag2014-002005 · Cited by 3
"Do You Plead Connected?" - Understanding How Lawyers Deal With Constant Connectivity
Gruber, M. R., Sarigianni, C., Geiger, M., & Remus, U. (2018) · Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS) · doi:10.24251/hicss.2018.656 · Cited by 3
“Q methodology is preferred in research to systematically study subjective viewpoints of individuals and to develop typologies, since it correlates individuals’ viewpoints of people rather than variables selected by the researchers [18, 19].”
Method
Der Wertekompass von PR-Berater*innen in ethischen Konflikten
Sandhu, S., & Hildebrand, A.-L. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-35695-8_11 · Cited by 3
Chapter XIII: Factor Analysis
Holzinger, K. J., & Harman, H. H. (1939) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/00346543009005528 · Cited by 3
Divided Lives
Rosenthal, C. S. (2001) · Journal of Women Politics & Policy · doi:10.1300/j014v22n01_02 · Cited by 3
„Shedler-Westen Assessment Procedure“ (SWAP-200)
Taubner, S., Stumpe, A., & Kächele, H. U. (2008) · Psychotherapeut · doi:10.1007/s00278-008-0628-4 · Cited by 3
Developing Indicators of Quality School Education as Perceived by Teachers Using Q-Methodology Approach
Grover, V. K. (2015) · ZENITH International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research · Cited by 3
School Staff’s Experiences and Coping Related to the Challenging Behaviour of Children with Smith-Magenis Syndrome in Schools: A Q Methodological Study
Nag, H. E., Øverland, K., & Nærland, T. (2020) · International Journal of Disability Development and Education · doi:10.1080/1034912x.2020.1780199 · Cited by 3
“Q methodology was developed and introduced by William Stephenson in 1935 (Stephenson, 1935).”
Method
Q-methodology in the study of "weak religiosity"
Пруцкова, Е. В., Markin, K. V., & Vrublevskaya, P. (2020) · Research Result Sociology and Management · doi:10.18413/2408-9338-2020-6-3-0-11 · Cited by 3
Stakeholder views on grizzly bear management in the Banff-Bow Valley: a before–after Q methodology study
Kölhi, J. K. (2010) · Summit (Simon Fraser University) · Cited by 3
Stakeholder perceptions in the government policies on the alternative accommodation industry
Oh, J.-K., & You, E.-S. (2018) · Journal of Policy Research in Tourism Leisure and Events · doi:10.1080/19407963.2018.1516078 · Cited by 3
“An American psychologist, William Stephenson, developed this approach in 1935 (Stephenson, 1935), arguing that Q methodology is a scientific approach that allows the researcher to gain a systematic understanding of individual subjectivity, and perform a systematic study of subjectivity in terms of…”
BackgroundMethod
Stakeholder Engagement in a Shale Exploration Project: Supporting Societal Embedding
Pikaar, E. (2011) · Research Repository (Delft University of Technology) · Cited by 3
Perseverance time of informal carers. A new concept in dementia care. Validation and exploration
Kraijo, H., Schrijvers, A. J. P., Brouwer, W. B. F., de Leeuw, J. R. J., & Exel, N. J. A. V. (2015) · Utrecht University Repository (Utrecht University) · Cited by 3
Play Theory
Caldwell, M. (2020) · The International Encyclopedia of Media Psychology · doi:10.1002/9781119011071.iemp0259 · Cited by 3
Deconstructing sexual harassment: an analysis of constructions of unwanted sexual attention and (un)resistance in participant and policy accounts
Lazard, L. (2009) · NECTAR - Northampton Electronic Collection of Thesis and Research (University of Northampton) · Cited by 3
The ethical acceptability of human enhancement technologies: A cross-country Q-study of the perception of insideables
Gauttier, S., Arias-Oliva, M., Murata, K., & Borondo, J. P. (2024) · Computers in Human Behavior Artificial Humans · doi:10.1016/j.chbah.2024.100092 · Cited by 2
The Attitudes of Midwives Towards NHS Fee-Charging and Data-Sharing Policies for Migrant Mothers in the UK: A Q-Methodology Study
Barclay, E. G. (2024) · Women s Reproductive Health · doi:10.1080/23293691.2024.2434221 · Cited by 2
Análisis cuantitativo y cualitativo en la investigación de lenguas extranjeras
Sun, Y., & Peng, S. (2023) · TEISEL Tecnologías para la investigación en segundas lenguas · doi:10.1344/teisel.v2.41969 · Cited by 2
Mathematics Teachers’ Beliefs About Which Practices They Implement: A Q-Sort Analysis
Wilkerson, T. L., & Shelton, R. N. (2023) · Investigations in Mathematics Learning · doi:10.1080/19477503.2023.2253077 · Cited by 2
“Stephenson (1935, 1953) innovated and highlighted the Q-sort as a tool with the option to correlate people rather than tests.”
Method
Exploring the motivations of student volunteer translators in Chinese queer activism
Li, Y., & Tao, Y. (2023) · Target International Journal of Translation Studies · doi:10.1075/target.22059.li · Cited by 2
Q-sort Methodology - the systematic study of participant viewpoints in Social Research
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O’Connor, K., & Shahwan, U. (2024) · Review of Public Personnel Administration · doi:10.1177/0734371x241242436 · Cited by 2
“The approach was developed by Stephenson (1935) and relaunched in political science by Brown (1980).”
The art of the ‘common good’: Property and nature values in strategic land-use planning in Finland
Salo, M. S., Puustinen, S., Jounela, P., Hänninen, H., & Hiedanpää, J. (2024) · Environmental Science & Policy · doi:10.1016/j.envsci.2024.103815 · Cited by 6
Local stakeholder's perspectives on development of economic activities: The Gällivare case
Elomina, J., Živojinović, I., Lidestav, G., Sandström, P., Sandström, S., & Pülzl, H. (2025) · The Extractive Industries and Society · doi:10.1016/j.exis.2025.101664 · Cited by 2
Wat vindt de huisarts belangrijk tijdens een dienst?
Dijkers, M., Korving, K., & van Exel, J. N. A. (2006) · Huisarts en Wetenschap · doi:10.1007/bf03084870 · Cited by 2
Profielen van mantelzorgers van naasten met dementie
Kraijo, H. (2016) · Tijdschrift voor Gerontologie en Geriatrie · doi:10.1007/s12439-016-0188-y · Cited by 2
Attitudes and perspectives toward water and water management in the Town of Gibsons, British Columbia
Weekes, V. L. (2008) · Summit (Simon Fraser University) · Cited by 2
Inter-organizational Contracts in Sub-Saharan Africa an Exploration of Managers’ Perceptions
Delerue, H., & Ouédraogo, A. (2020) · Journal of African Business · doi:10.1080/15228916.2020.1826883 · Cited by 2
“Initially developed by Stephenson (1935) for use in psychology, the Q-methodology seeks to identify shared points of view and to measure the affinity of individuals with these points of view, as well as similarities and differences between individuals (Brown, 1996).”
Background
The Importance of School Leadership Support when Working with Students with Smith-Magenis Syndrome – A Q Methodology Study
Nag, H. E., Nærland, T., & Øverland, K. (2021) · International Journal of Disability Development and Education · doi:10.1080/1034912x.2021.1888893 · Cited by 2
“William Stephenson developed and introduced the Q methodology in 1935 (Stephenson, 1935).”
Method
Logical grouping of data and control functions on the displays of shipboard navigation systems
Vũ, V. D., Lützhöft, M., & Imset, M. (2022) · Journal of Navigation · doi:10.1017/s0373463322000157 · Cited by 2
Q-sort Evaluation of Risk Factors by Automotive Experts
Venczel, T. B., Berényi, L., & Hriczó, K. (2023) · Acta Polytechnica Hungarica · doi:10.12700/aph.21.4.2024.4.2 · Cited by 2
“The forced sort pattern assures normal distribution of the evaluations of the participants [32].”
BackgroundMethod
Systematic Analysis of Individuals’ Perspectives on Cybersecurity Using Q Methodology: Implications for Research and Application in Behavior Analysis
Olla, R., Houmanfar, R. A., Sengupta, S., Hand, E., & Louis, S. J. (2024) · Behavior and Social Issues · doi:10.1007/s42822-024-00174-5 · Cited by 2
“Hence, we can have: 1. participants who have a special interest in the topic under investigation; 2. participants who are experts (Stephenson [1964] specifies that they are “persons of maturity, broad education and experience, who, given all the pertinent facts on the controversy, are asked to form a dispassionate jud…”
Influential
PERCEPTION TYPES OF HOME BUYERS BY Q METHODOLOGY: A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF HONG KONG, TAIWAN, AND THE USA
Liu, C.-C., Chen, J. C. H., & Poon, C.-C. (2017) · The Singapore Economic Review · doi:10.1142/s0217590817430093 · Cited by 2
Scores and Principal Components: The Relationship between Components due to Subjects and to Variables
Rimoldi, H. J. A., & de Libonatti, E. B. (2000) · The Spanish Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1017/s1138741600005564 · Cited by 2
“Early in the thirties, Stephenson (1935,1936) presented a possible solution to the problem concerning the factor analysis of persons instead of tests.”
Background
A Q-Technique Study of the Professional Interests of Psychologists
Bendig, A. W. (1952) · The Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00223980.1952.9712818 · Cited by 2
DIMENSIONS OF OCCUPATIONAL PREFERENCE
Terwilliger, J. S. (1962) · ETS Research Bulletin Series · doi:10.1002/j.2333-8504.1962.tb00302.x · Cited by 2
The Cambridge handbook of consciousness
Smith, N. W. (2009) · The Psychological Record · doi:10.1007/bf03395654 · Cited by 2
Identifying participants' perspective changes in mediation training using Q methodology
Walker, B. (2013) · Cited by 2
Personal city mobility in the context of sustainable development
Tkatchenko, R. (2018) · doi:10.14267/phd.2018008 · Cited by 2
Understanding Drinking Behaviour: Affordances and an Ecological Approach to Cognition
Hill, K. M. (2014) · Radar (Oxford Brookes University) · doi:10.24384/9dwf-9c40 · Cited by 2
“These are then distinguished as viewpoints and participants are measured in accordance to them (Stephenson, 1935).”
Background
Q-Sort Evaluation of Technology Adoption Propensity Items
Berényi, L. (2023) · Multidiszciplináris Tudományok · doi:10.35925/j.multi.2023.3.11 · Cited by 1
“The methodology was developed by Stephenson (1935) for psychological analysis.”
Method
Introducing the Situational Q-sort to Crisis Practice and Research: Exploring best practices and implications
Freberg, K., Saling, K. C., & Freberg, L. A. (2015) · Journal of Media Critiques · doi:10.17349/jmc115103 · Cited by 1
“Stephenson (1935) distinguished between R methodology, which features “a selected population of n individuals each of whom as been measured in m tests,” and Q methodology, which features “a population of n different tests (or essays, pictures, traits or other measurable material), each of which is…”
MethodInfluential
An exploration of stated preferences for middle-distance travel
van Exel, J. N. A., de Graaf, G., & Rietveld, P. (2011) · Cited by 1
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The Cambridge handbook of consciousness by P.D. Zelazo, M. Moscovitch, and E. Thompson reviewed by Noel W. Smith
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“We did so by applying the Q-sort method (Stephenson 1935), a procedure that facilitates the systematic study of participant subjectivity and the different accounts that people construct (Cross 2005).”
Method
Behavioural Phenotype of Smith-Magenis Syndrome (SMS): Individual characteristics and parental and school staff's experiences
Nag, H. E. (2020) · University of Stavanger eBooks · doi:10.31265/usps.70 · Cited by 1
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Töpfer, J. (2022) · Journal of Southeast European and Black Sea Studies · doi:10.1080/14683857.2022.2073673 · Cited by 1
“…avoiding preconceived questions and frameworks, and in contrast to quantitatively oriented research on attitudes (which investigates correlations between objective items pre-assumed by the researcher), Stephenson described the method as ‘correlating persons instead of tests’ (Stephenson 1935, 17).”
Method
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“(Stephenson, 1935).”
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“Q-methodology was presented by Stephenson (1935) and later refined in Brown (1996) for the areas of social sciences and humanities for studying subjectivity through a combination of qualitative and quantitative techniques (Zabala, Sandbrook and Mukherjee, 2018).”
Method
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Using Q-methodology to Understand The Human Interactions with Pollinating Insects in Mayotte (French Island, Indian Ocean of East Africa)
Périchon, S. (2024) · Études caribéennes · doi:10.4000/etudescaribeennes.30308 · Cited by 1
Early Childhood Studies of Thoughts, Emotions, and Behavior
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Exploring the potential for Q method in the study of personal information management
Cushing, A. L. (2012) · Cited by 1
The bulimic self : constructions of bulimia and women's embodied experiences of bulimic practices
Churruca, K. (2016) · Cited by 1
Dental and medical student perceptions of alcohol as part of university life : an investigation using Q-methodology
Yule, R. L. (2014) · White Rose eTheses Online (University of Leeds, The University of Sheffield, University of York) · Cited by 1
A Q-Analysis for Nominal Data'
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Compulsory Mental Health Care in Norway: A Study of the Interface between the Law and Psychiatry
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Development and Validation of the Mentalising Profile Q-Sort (MQS)
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Men in a female-majority profession: Q-sort narratives of male clinical psychology trainees
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Barriers to treatment access for young problem gamblers
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Authors: STEPHENSON, W.
Affiliations: University College London (GB)
Corresponding author: STEPHENSON, W.
ORCID: STEPHENSON, W.
Venue: Journal of Personality
Publisher: Wiley
Published: 1935-09
Volume: 4
Issue: 1
Pages: 17-24
ISSN: 0022-3506 (ISSN-L)
1467-6494
DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-6494.1935.tb02022.x
OpenAlex: W2028674112
Cited by: 475
References: 0
Citations by year: 2026: 18 · 2025: 17 · 2024: 18 · 2023: 29 · 2022: 21 · 2021: 33 · 2020: 31 · 2019: 15 · 2018: 21 · 2017: 16 · 2016: 23 · 2015: 17 · 2014: 16 · 2013: 18 · 2012: 14
FWCI: 1.23
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: doi.wiley.com/10.1002/tdm_license_1.1 (tdm, 29220 d)
Locations: Journal of Personality (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Psychological Testing and Assessment
Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
Keywords: person-centered approach, personality assessment

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CORRELATING PERSONS INSTEAD OF TESTS

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