The development and validation of the Relational Self-esteem Scale
Abstract
According to the tripartite model of the self (Brewer & Gardner, 1996), the self consists of three aspects: personal, relational, and collective. Correspondingly, individuals can achieve a sense of self-worth through their personal attributes (personal self-esteem), relationship with significant others (relational self-esteem), or social group membership (collective self-esteem). Existing measures on personal and collective self-esteem are available in the literature; however, no scale exists that assesses relational self-esteem. The authors developed a scale to measure individual differences in relational self-esteem and tested it with two samples of Chinese university students. Between and within-network approaches to construct validation were used. The scale showed adequate internal consistency reliability and results of the confirmatory factor analysis showed good fit. It also exhibited meaningful correlations with theoretically relevant constructs in the nomological network. Implications and directions for future research are discussed.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
RSE pertains to self-worth derived from one's relationships with significant others such as family and friends.
“RSE pertains to self-worth derived from one's relationships with significant others such as family and friends [19, 20].”
From Self-esteem and subjective well-being revisited: The roles of personal, relational, and collective self-esteem (2017) · cites this paper as [20]
Cites
Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999) · Structural Equation Modeling A Multidisciplinary Journal · doi:10.1080/10705519909540118 · Cited by 108,788 · see citing works
Society and the Adolescent Self-Image
Rosenberg, M. (1965) · doi:10.1515/9781400876136 · Cited by 30,126 · see citing works
Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation.
Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (1991) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.98.2.224 · Cited by 21,995 · see citing works
The Social Identity Theory of Intergroup Behavior
Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (2004) · Political Psychology · doi:10.4324/9780203505984-16 · Cited by 13,467 · see citing works
Psychology of intergroup relations
Austin, W. G., & Worchel, S. (1986) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 10,626 · see citing works
Attachment styles among young adults: a test of a four-category model.
Bartholomew, K., & Horowitz, L. M. (1991) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.61.2.226 · Cited by 7,965 · see citing works
Illusion and well‐being: A social psychological perspective on mental health
Taylor, S. E., & Brown, J. D. (1988) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.103.2.193 · Cited by 7,814 · see citing works
Attachment styles among young adults: A test of a four-category model.
Bartholomew, K., & Horowitz, L. M. (1991) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.61.2.226 · Cited by 7,727 · see citing works
Inclusion of Other in the Self Scale and the structure of interpersonal closeness.
Aron, A., Aron, E. N., & Smollan, D. (1992) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.63.4.596 · Cited by 5,157 · see citing works
The self and social behavior in differing cultural contexts.
Triandis, H. C. (1989) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.96.3.506 · Cited by 5,019 · see citing works
Armsden, G. C., & Greenberg, M. T. (1987) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/bf02202939 · Cited by 4,031 · see citing works
Who is this "We"? Levels of collective identity and self representations.
Brewer, M. B., & Gardner, W. (1996) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.71.1.83 · Cited by 3,401 · see citing works
A Collective Self-Esteem Scale: Self-Evaluation of One’s Social Identity
Luhtanen, R., & Crocker, J. (1992) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167292183006 · Cited by 3,057 · see citing works
Converging measurement of horizontal and vertical individualism and collectivism.
Triandis, H. C., & Gelfand, M. J. (1998) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.74.1.118 · Cited by 2,992 · see citing works
Individualism and collectivism: Cross-cultural perspectives on self-ingroup relationships.
Triandis, H. C., Bontempo, R. N., Villareal, M. J., Asai, M., & Irizarry, N. L. (1988) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.54.2.323 · Cited by 2,974 · see citing works
Structural Equation Modeling: A Second Course
(2007) · Personnel Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.2007.00081_13.x · Cited by 2,851 · see citing works
Is there a universal need for positive self-regard?
Heine, S. J., Lehman, D. R., Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (1999) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.106.4.766 · Cited by 2,247 · see citing works
Resilience in the Face of Catastrophe: Optimism, Personality, and Coping in the Kosovo Crisis
Riolli, L., Savicki, V., & Cepani, A. (2002) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2002.tb02765.x · Cited by 2,166 · see citing works
Nonnormaland Categorical Data in Structural Equation Modeling
Finney, S. J., & DiStefano, C. (2013) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/978-1-62396-246-320251015 · Cited by 1,870 · see citing works
Relational schemas and the processing of social information.
Baldwin, M. W. (1992) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.112.3.461 · Cited by 1,681 · see citing works
Schmitt, D. P., & Allik, J. (2005) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.89.4.623 · Cited by 1,665 · see citing works
Brewer, M. B., & Chen, Y.-R. (2007) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.114.1.133 · Cited by 1,200 · see citing works
The relational-interdependent self-construal and relationships.
Cross, S. E., Bacon, P. L., & Morris, M. L. (2000) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.78.4.791 · Cited by 1,092 · see citing works
Collective self-esteem and ingroup bias
Crocker, J., & Luhtanen, R. (1990) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.58.1.60 · Cited by 845 · see citing works
Martin, A. J. (2006) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1348/000709906x118036 · Cited by 739 · see citing works
Collective self-esteem and psychological well-being among White, Black, and Asian college students
Crocker, J., Luhtanen, R., Blaine, B., & Broadnax, S. (1994) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167294205007 · Cited by 718 · see citing works
Neural basis of cultural influence on self-representation
Zhu, Y., Zhang, L., Fan, J., & Han, S. (2007) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2006.08.047 · Cited by 701 · see citing works
The physical self: from motivation to well-being
Fox, K. I. 0.-0.-2.-4. (1997) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.35-2411 · Cited by 543 · see citing works
The nature and importance of attachment relationships to parents and peers during adolescence
Greenberg, M. T., Siegel, J. M., & Leitch, C. J. (1983) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/bf02088721 · Cited by 537 · see citing works
When modesty prevails: Differential favorability of self-presentation to friends and strangers.
Tice, D., Butler, J. L., Muraven, M., & Stillwell, A. (1995) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.69.6.1120 · Cited by 458 · see citing works
The cultural construction of self-enhancement: An examination of group-serving biases.
Heine, S. J., & Lehman, D. R. (1997) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.72.6.1268 · Cited by 393 · see citing works
The relational self revealed: Integrative conceptualization and implications for interpersonal life.
Chen, S., Boucher, H. C., & Tapias, M. P. (2006) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.2.151 · Cited by 366 · see citing works
Principles of educational and psychological testing
BROWN, F. G. (1970) · Cited by 324 · see citing works
The cultural construction of self-enhancement: An examination of group-serving biases.
Heine, S. J., & Lehman, D. R. (1997) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.72.6.1268 · Cited by 280 · see citing works
Harter, S., Waters, P., & Whitesell, N. R. (1998) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1998.tb06241.x · Cited by 256 · see citing works
Kashima, E. S., & Hardie, E. A. (2000) · Asian Journal Of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/1467-839x.00053 · Cited by 253 · see citing works
"Do I know you?": The role of significant others in general social perception.
Andersen, S. M., & Cole, S. W. (1990) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.59.3.384 · Cited by 214 · see citing works
"Do I know you?": The role of significant others in general social perception.
Andersen, S. M., & Cole, S. W. (1990) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.59.3.384 · Cited by 209 · see citing works
Arbona, C., & Power, T. G. (2003) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0167.50.1.40 · Cited by 174 · see citing works
Ho, D. Y. F. (1998) · Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology · doi:10.1177/0022022198291005 · Cited by 174 · see citing works
Motivational Facets of the Self
Breckler, S., & Greenwald, A. G. (1986) · Cited by 111 · see citing works
Andersen, S. M., Glassman, N. S., & Gold, D. A. (1998) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.75.4.845 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Andersen, S. M., Glassman, N. S., & Gold, D. A. (1998) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.75.4.845 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Neff, K. D., & Suizzo, M. (2006) · Cognitive Development · doi:10.1016/j.cogdev.2006.06.008 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Prediction of Chinese life satisfaction: Contribution of collective self-esteem
Zhang, L. (2005) · International Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00207590444000285 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Implicit-Explicit Differences in Self-Enhancement for Americans and Japanese
Kobayashi, C., & Greenwald, A. G. (2003) · Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology · doi:10.1177/0022022103257855 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Review of Principles of Educational and Psychological Testing 3rd ed.
Hays, W. L. (1984) · Contemporary Psychology · doi:10.1037/022838 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
King, R. B., & Du, H. (2011) · The HKU Scholars Hub (University of Hong Kong) · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Self-citationReputational Implications of Procedural Fairness for Personal and Relational Self-Esteem
David De Cremer, A., & Sedikides, C. (2008) · Basic and Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/01973530701866557 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Du, H., King, R. B., & Chi, P. (2017) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0183958 · Cited by 238 · see citing works
Self-citationDu, H., & King, R. B. (2012) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2012.09.015 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
Self-citationChoi, B., Ahn, S., & Lee, S. H. (2016) · Journal of Construction Engineering and Management · doi:10.1061/(asce)co.1943-7862.0001271 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
Du, H., Jonas, E., Klackl, J., Agroskin, D., Hui, E. K. P., & Ma, L. (2013) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2013.06.007 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Self-citationDu, H., Bernardo, A. B. I., & Yeung, S. S. (2015) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2015.04.026 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Self-citationKing, R. B., & McInerney, D. M. (2019) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2019.04.003 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Self-citationExamining the role of social goals in school: A study in two collectivist cultures
King, R. B., McInerney, D. M., & Watkins, D. (2013) · European Journal of Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s10212-013-0179-0 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Self-citationA cross-cultural analysis of achievement and social goals among Chinese and Filipino students
King, R. B., Ganotice, F. A., & Watkins, D. (2014) · Social Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s11218-014-9251-0 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Self-citationExternal locus‐of‐hope, well‐being, and coping of students: A cross‐cultural examination within Asia
Bernardo, A. B. I., Yeung, S. S., Resurreccion, K. F., Resurreccion, R. R., & Khan, A. A. (2018) · Psychology in the Schools · doi:10.1002/pits.22155 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Feng, Y., Yi, Z., Yang, C., Chen, R., & Feng, Y. (2022) · Technological Forecasting and Social Change · doi:10.1016/j.techfore.2022.121520 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Du, H., Li, X., Lin, D., & Tam, C. C. (2015) · Community Mental Health Journal · doi:10.1007/s10597-014-9785-9 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
“In East Asian cultures, collectivism is emphasized in the relationship with significant others (i.e., family and best friends) rather than with general social groups (e.g., coworkers, classmates) (Brewer and Chen 2007; Du et al. 2012, 2013).”
BackgroundSelf-citationDu, H., & Li, X. (2013) · Health Psychology Review · doi:10.1080/17437199.2013.840952 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Self-citationDu, H., King, R. B., & Chu, S. K. W. (2015) · Psychology Health & Medicine · doi:10.1080/13548506.2015.1127397 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Self-citationAspects of identity: From the inner-outer metaphor to a tetrapartite model of the self
Cheek, N. N., & Cheek, J. M. (2018) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298868.2017.1412347 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Relational self-esteem, psychological well-being, and social support in children affected by HIV
Du, H., Li, X.-M., Chi, P., Zhao, J.-F., & Zhao, G.-X. (2015) · Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1177/1359105313517276 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Self-citationBernardo, A. B. I., & Estrellado, A. F. (2014) · Social Indicators Research · doi:10.1007/s11205-013-0573-7 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Lan, X., & Wang, W. (2019) · Psychology Research and Behavior Management · doi:10.2147/prbm.s202774 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Bernardo, A. B. I. (2013) · Scandinavian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/sjop.12081 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Ai, W., Cunningham, W. A., & Lai, M. (2023) · Comprehensive Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2023.152434 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Du, H., Li, X., & Lin, D. (2014) · Asian Journal Of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/ajsp.12085 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Self-citationRisk factors for smoking in adolescence: evidence from a cross-sectional survey in Switzerland
Altwicker-Hámori, S., Ackermann, K. A., Furchheim, P., Dratva, J., Truninger, D., Müller, S., & Wieber, F. (2024) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-024-18695-4 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Li, J., Liu, Y., & Song, J. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.769459 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Du, H., & Jonas, E. (2014) · Scandinavian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/sjop.12175 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Self-citationHauke-Forman, N., & Abele, A. E. (2020) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2020.109957 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Hope and Satisfaction with Life: Testing the Mediating Roles of Self-Esteem in three Asian Cultures
Bernardo, A. B. I., Khan, A. A., & Salanga, M. G. C. (2018) · Acción Psicológica · doi:10.5944/ap.15.2.23456 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Bernardo, A. B. I., Begeny, J. C., Earle, O. B., Ginns, D. S., Grazioso, M. D. P., Ferrer, M. S., Suzuki, H., & Zapata, R. (2018) · Psychology in the Schools · doi:10.1002/pits.22160 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Li, J., Liu, M., Peng, M., Jiang, K., Chen, H., & Yang, J. (2019) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2019.107195 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Parenting and Ninth Graders’ Self‐Efficacy and Relational Self‐Esteem in Latino Immigrant Families
Yomtov, D., Plunkett, S. W., Sands, T., & Reid, A. (2015) · Family and Consumer Sciences Research Journal · doi:10.1111/fcsr.12102 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Li, M., Zhang, S., & Zhang, L. (2024) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2024.112746 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Zeng, M., Li, J., Wang, C., Deng, C., Li, R., Chen, H., & Yang, J. (2021) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/jopy.12658 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Psychometric Properties of the Relational Self-Esteem Scale in a Community-Based Sample in China
Du, H., Li, X., Chi, P., Zhao, J., & Zhao, G. (2016) · European Journal of Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1027/1015-5759/a000320 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Self-citationExploring Locus-of-Hope: Relational Tendencies, Self-Esteem, Attachment, and Gender
Dargan, S., MacDonald, K. B., & Schermer, J. A. (2021) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs11090120 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Sociocultural dimensions of student motivation
Bernardo, A. B. I. (2018) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315180625-9 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Questionnaire Data From the Revision of a Chinese Version of Free Will and Determinism Plus Scale
Liu, Q.-L., Wang, F., Yan, W., Peng, K., Sui, J., & Chuan-Peng, H. (2020) · Journal of Open Psychology Data · doi:10.5334/jopd.49 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Multivariable pattern classification differentiates relational self-esteem from personal self-esteem
Li, J., Zeng, M., Liu, M., Zhao, X., Hu, W., Wang, C., Deng, C., Li, R., Chen, H., & Juan, Y. (2021) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nsab053 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Zhang, Y., Zhao, Y., Ni, T., Chen, J., & Tang, W. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1040935 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Pornprasit, N., & Boonyasiriwat, W. (2018) · Kasetsart Journal of Social Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.kjss.2018.02.012 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Tang, X., Hu, W., Zhao, X., Liu, Y., Ren, Y., Tang, Z., & Yang, J. (2024) · Applied Psychology Health and Well-Being · doi:10.1111/aphw.12534 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Cultural orientation and social capital as predictors of condom use among internal migrants in China
Du, H., Li, X., Lin, D., & Tam, C. C. (2014) · Health Education Journal · doi:10.1177/0017896914563321 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Self-citationLiu, B., Liu, V., He, K., & Ou, J. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1701187 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Wang, G., Zeng, M., Li, J., Liu, Y., Wei, D., Long, Z., Chen, H., Zang, X., & Yang, J. (2023) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2023.08.017 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Demers, V., Pierce, T., & Lapierre, V. (2016) · Les cahiers internationaux de psychologie sociale · doi:10.3917/cips.108.0555
The Contribution of Perceived Father Involvement towards Relational Self-Esteem in Early Adolescence
Diori, S., & Handayani, E. (2018) · Universitas Indonesia International Psychology Symposium for Undergraduate Research (UIPSUR) · doi:10.2991/uipsur-17.2018.7
The Role of Socio-Cognitive Process in Construction Workers' Safety Behaviors
Choi, B. (2018) · Deep Blue (University of Michigan)
Wu, C., Bai, X., Peng, X., Huang, T., & Zhu, X. (2023) · OMEGA - Journal of Death and Dying · doi:10.1177/00302228231221844
Li, T., Gong, Y., Yang, T., Ouyang, Z., & Li, F. (2024) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-024-06831-7
Self-compassion: no communal alternative to agentic self-esteem
Hauke-Forman, N., & Kollmayer, M. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1645815 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Romantic Relationships on a Daily Scale
Naumann, M., Pfister, M., Brandstätter, V., & Hennecke, M. (2025) · European Journal of Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1027/1015-5759/a000919
Self-Esteem Assessment Based on Self-Introduction: A Multimodal Approach to Personality Computing
Zang, X., & Yang, J. (2025) · Assessment · doi:10.1177/10731911251403907
Narcissism and self- esteem as predictors of exchange and communal relational orientations
Gąsiorowska, A., Kuzminska, A. O., & Zaleśkiewicz, T. (2026) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2026.113925
- Authors
- DU, H., KING, R. B., & CHI, P.
- Affiliations
- University of Hong Kong (HK)
- Corresponding author
- DU, HONGFEI
- Venue
- Scandinavian Journal of Psychology
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2012-03-30
- Volume
- 53
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 258-264
- ISSN
- 0036-5564 (ISSN-L)
- 1467-9450
- OpenAlex
- W1897434686
- Cited by
- 52
- References
- 46
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 4 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 3 · 2022: 3 · 2021: 3 · 2020: 2 · 2019: 3 · 2018: 8 · 2017: 3 · 2016: 3 · 2015: 3 · 2014: 7 · 2013: 4 · 2012: 1
- FWCI
- 5.45
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Scandinavian Journal of Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Cultural Differences and Values
- Keywords
- self-esteem, scale development, scale validation, Chinese university students, collective self-esteem, nomological network
- MeSH terms
- Achievement, Adolescent, Adult, Factor Analysis, Statistical, Female, Humans, Interpersonal Relations, Male, Surveys and Questionnaires, Self Concept, Reproducibility of Results
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
