The DOI matches its Crossref record; 41 of the 42 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 16 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.
Time perception, phonological skills and executive function in children with dyslexia and/or ADHD symptoms
Open accessAbstract
Background: Deficits in time perception (the ability to judge the duration of time intervals) have been found in children with both attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and dyslexia. This paper investigates time perception, phonological skills and executive functions in children with dyslexia and/or ADHD symptoms (AS). Method: Children with dyslexia‐only ( n = 17), AS‐only ( n = 17), comorbid dyslexia+AS ( n = 25), and typically developing controls ( n = 42), matched for age and non‐verbal ability, were assessed on measures of phonological skills, executive function and time perception (duration discrimination and time reproduction). Results: Children with dyslexia were impaired on measures of phonological skill and duration discrimination compared to children without dyslexia (though problems on duration discrimination appeared to be attributable to mild symptoms of inattention in this group). In contrast, children with AS exhibited impairments on measures of both time perception and executive function compared to children without AS. Children with dyslexia+AS showed an additive combination of the deficits associated with dyslexia‐only and AS‐only. Conclusions: Dyslexia and AS appear to be associated with distinct patterns of cognitive deficit, which are present in combination in children with dyslexia+AS.
Overview
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Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
Children with dyslexia and/or ADHD symptoms (AS) showed distinct cognitive profiles: dyslexia was linked to phonological deficits, while AS was linked to executive-function and time-perception deficits. Comorbid dyslexia+AS showed an additive combination of both profiles rather than more severe or unique deficits.
Key findings
- Dyslexia was associated with poorer phonological skills: significant main effects on phoneme deletion (F = 9.11, p < .01, ηp² = .09), nonword repetition (F = 9.15, p < .01, ηp² = .09), phonemic decoding (F = 32.62, p < .01, ηp² = .26), and digit recall (F = 5.26, p < .05, ηp² = .05).
- AS was associated with executive-function/attention weaknesses: significant main effects on response variability (SDRT: F = 9.37, p < .01, ηp² = .10), listening recall (F = 4.72, p < .05, ηp² = .05), block recall (F = 3.95, p < .05, ηp² = .04), and sustained attention (Score!: F = 8.52, p < .01, ηp² = .09).
- Time perception was impaired in both conditions: duration discrimination showed significant main effects of dyslexia (F = 5.10, p < .05, ηp² = .05) and AS (F = 4.00, p < .05, ηp² = .04); time reproduction error showed a significant AS main effect (F = 6.38, p < .05, ηp² = .07).
- In a regression predicting duration discrimination thresholds (n = 98), inattention was the only unique predictor (unique R² = .05, p < .05); hyperactivity/impulsivity and literacy difficulty did not predict additional unique variance (R² = .00 and .01), with overall R² = .11.
Methods
- Four groups of children aged 5.58–14.75 years (mean = 10.23, SD = 2.24) participated: dyslexia-only (n = 17), AS-only (n = 17), dyslexia+AS (n = 25), and typically developing controls (n = 42), matched for age and non-verbal ability.
- Children completed measures of phonological skills (phoneme deletion, CNRep, phonemic decoding, digit recall), executive function (SSRT task, listening recall, block recall, Score!), and time perception (duration discrimination and time reproduction).
- Analyses used 2 × 2 (dyslexia ± × AS ±) ANOVAs, planned comparisons, mixed ANOVA for time reproduction, and a simultaneous regression predicting duration discrimination from inattention, hyperactivity, and literacy difficulty.
Limitations
- Stated in the paper: the lack of a diagnostic assessment of ADHD, including evidence of persistence and impairment, may restrict generalisability to other ADHD samples.
- Stated in the paper: the study included just one measure of visuo-spatial memory (Block Recall), and other more attentionally demanding visuo-spatial memory tasks were not included.
- Evident from the text: the AS group combined children with a prior clinical ADHD diagnosis (n = 15) and children recruited on parent/teacher concerns without a clinical diagnosis (n = 27); parent and teacher ratings were not available for all children, and two hyperactive/impulsive-only children were excluded from analyses.
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Claims the paper makes
36 Own result · 15 Own method · 13 Own interpretation · 12 Not checked yet · 1 No basis given
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast, children with AS exhibited impairments on measures of both time perception and executive function compared to children without AS.”
§ Time perception, phonological skills and executive function in children with dyslexia and/or ADHD symptoms > Abstract > Results
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Children with dyslexia were impaired on measures of phonological skill and duration discrimination compared to children without dyslexia”
§ Time perception, phonological skills and executive function in children with dyslexia and/or ADHD symptoms > Abstract > Results
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Children with dyslexia were impaired on measures of phonological skill and duration discrimination compared to children without dyslexia”
§ Time perception, phonological skills and executive function in children with dyslexia and/or ADHD symptoms > Abstract > Results
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast, children with AS exhibited impairments on measures of both time perception and executive function compared to children without AS.”
§ Time perception, phonological skills and executive function in children with dyslexia and/or ADHD symptoms > Abstract > Results
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Children with dyslexia+AS showed an additive combination of the deficits associated with dyslexia-only and AS-only.”
§ Time perception, phonological skills and executive function in children with dyslexia and/or ADHD symptoms > Abstract > Results
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There was also a strong trend for the dyslexia+AS group to perform worse than the dyslexia-only group on the Score! test (t (40) = 1.89, p = .07; d = .59).”
§ Time perception, phonological skills and executive function in children with dyslexia and/or ADHD symptoms > Results > Executive function
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Together measures of inattention, hyperactivity and composite literacy difficulty scores accounted for 11% of the variance in duration discrimination thresholds.”
§ Time perception, phonological skills and executive function in children with dyslexia and/or ADHD symptoms > Results > Dimensional analyses
plaincorrelationaln = 98- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: The children classified as having ADHD symptoms (AS) based on rating scales have ADHD as intended, despite the lack of a diagnostic assessment.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Children with dyslexia+AS made significantly more errors than children with dyslexia-only (t (16) = 3.70, p < .01)”
§ Time perception, phonological skills and executive function in children with dyslexia and/or ADHD symptoms > Results > Time perception
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: The children classified as having ADHD symptoms (AS) based on rating scales have ADHD as intended, despite the lack of a diagnostic assessment.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There were also non-significant trends for children with AS to show longer SSRTs (reflecting weaker inhibition) compared to children without AS.”
§ Time perception, phonological skills and executive function in children with dyslexia and/or ADHD symptoms > Results > Executive function
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: The children classified as having ADHD symptoms (AS) based on rating scales have ADHD as intended, despite the lack of a diagnostic assessment.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The magnitude of absolute errors increased as the target duration increased (F (2.86, 254.45) = 39.78, p < .01, ηp2 = .31)”
§ Time perception, phonological skills and executive function in children with dyslexia and/or ADHD symptoms > Results > Time perception
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- It may state two separate claims as one. 14
- Probably not a substantial claim. 9
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“and neither hyperactivity/impulsivity nor literacy predicted additional unique variance (r2 = .00 and .01, respectively).”
§ Time perception, phonological skills and executive function in children with dyslexia and/or ADHD symptoms > Results > Dimensional analyses
plainn = 98- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The children classified as having ADHD symptoms (AS) based on rating scales have ADHD as intended, despite the lack of a diagnostic assessment.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Furthermore, although children with a diagnosis of ADHD tended to be rated by parents as showing more symptoms of inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity than children without a diagnosis, overall teacher ratings did not significantly differ between the groups and both groups were rated as having significantly more symptoms of ADHD than TD-controls”
§ Time perception, phonological skills and executive function in children with dyslexia and/or ADHD symptoms > Method > Participants
hedgedcorrelationaln = 42- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“but none of the interactions between target duration and either dyslexia or AS were significant (all Fs < 1).”
§ Time perception, phonological skills and executive function in children with dyslexia and/or ADHD symptoms > Results > Time perception
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Of the children with AS (n = 42), 15 had previously received a clinical diagnosis of ADHD combined-type, in the absence of any other comorbid diagnosis, by an experienced multidisciplinary CAMHS team.”
§ Time perception, phonological skills and executive function in children with dyslexia and/or ADHD symptoms > Method > Participants
plainn = 42- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As expected, there were significant main effects of dyslexia but not AS on all the measures of phonological skill (phoneme deletion, nonword repetition, phonemic decoding and digit recall)”
- Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
“Consistent with our hypotheses, children with dyslexia showed weaknesses on measures of phoneme deletion, nonword repetition, nonword reading and phonological memory.”
§ Time perception, phonological skills and executive function in children with dyslexia and/or ADHD symptoms > Results > Phonological skills
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“which appears to reflect the fact that the comorbid dyslexia+AS group actually perform slightly, but non-significantly, better than the dyslexia-only group on this task.”
§ Time perception, phonological skills and executive function in children with dyslexia and/or ADHD symptoms > Results > Phonological skills
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Children with dyslexia-only and AS-only performed similarly and less well than TD-controls on the duration discrimination task.”
§ Time perception, phonological skills and executive function in children with dyslexia and/or ADHD symptoms > Results > Time perception
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There were significant main effects of dyslexia and AS but no significant interaction.”
§ Time perception, phonological skills and executive function in children with dyslexia and/or ADHD symptoms > Results > Time perception
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The children classified as having ADHD symptoms (AS) based on rating scales have ADHD as intended, despite the lack of a diagnostic assessment.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Children with AS made large errors on the time reproduction task and showed deficits in duration discrimination.”
§ Time perception, phonological skills and executive function in children with dyslexia and/or ADHD symptoms > Discussion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The children classified as having ADHD symptoms (AS) based on rating scales have ADHD as intended, despite the lack of a diagnostic assessment.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There was no significant main effect of dyslexia and no significant interaction.”
§ Time perception, phonological skills and executive function in children with dyslexia and/or ADHD symptoms > Results > Time perception
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“It is widely accepted that the proximal cognitive cause of dyslexia is a phonological deficit (Vellutino, Fletcher, Snowling, & Scanlon, 2004)”
§ Time perception, phonological skills and executive function in children with dyslexia and/or ADHD symptoms > Abstract > Conclusions
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Vellutino, Fletcher, Snowling, & Scanlon, 2004
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Arguably, the pattern of findings just described (that dyslexia-only and ADHD-only are associated with different patterns of cognitive impairment but both forms of impairment co-occur in the comorbid condition) is consistent with this hypothesis.”
§ Time perception, phonological skills and executive function in children with dyslexia and/or ADHD symptoms > Abstract > Conclusions
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“whereas the predominant account of ADHD sees it as arising from an impairment in executive functions that affects both cognitive and motivational systems (Barkley, 1997).”
§ Time perception, phonological skills and executive function in children with dyslexia and/or ADHD symptoms > Abstract > Conclusions
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Barkley, 1997
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Dyslexia was associated with deficits in phonological skills (phonological awareness, phonological memory and decoding) whereas AS was associated with increased response variability, deficits in attention and in visuo-spatial short-term memory (STM)”
§ Time perception, phonological skills and executive function in children with dyslexia and/or ADHD symptoms > Discussion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The children classified as having ADHD symptoms (AS) based on rating scales have ADHD as intended, despite the lack of a diagnostic assessment.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“They also failed to provide support for the ‘cognitive subtype’ hypothesis (e.g., de Jong et al., 2006; Rucklidge & Tannock, 2002) because children with dyslexia+AS exhibited neither different, nor more severe, deficits than children with either pure condition.”
§ Time perception, phonological skills and executive function in children with dyslexia and/or ADHD symptoms > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites de Jong et al., 2006
- Not checked yetcites Rucklidge & Tannock, 2002
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The children classified as having ADHD symptoms (AS) based on rating scales have ADHD as intended, despite the lack of a diagnostic assessment.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The mean probability of responding (not inhibiting) on a stop-signal trial was .52, indicating that the tracking algorithm succeeded.”
§ Time perception, phonological skills and executive function in children with dyslexia and/or ADHD symptoms > Method > Tests and procedures
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Slightly poor duration discrimination also characterised children with dyslexia, probably reflecting mild impairments of attention in this group.”
§ Time perception, phonological skills and executive function in children with dyslexia and/or ADHD symptoms > Discussion
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Since children with dyslexia+AS performed poorly on measures of executive function as well as on phonological tasks, our findings refute the ‘phenocopy’ hypothesis (Pennington et al., 1993).”
§ Time perception, phonological skills and executive function in children with dyslexia and/or ADHD symptoms > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Pennington et al., 1993
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The children classified as having ADHD symptoms (AS) based on rating scales have ADHD as intended, despite the lack of a diagnostic assessment.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is important to note that the lack of a diagnostic assessment of ADHD, which includes evidence of persistence and impairment, is a limitation in this study and may restrict the generalisability of the results to other ADHD samples.”
§ Time perception, phonological skills and executive function in children with dyslexia and/or ADHD symptoms > Discussion
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The mean probability of responding (not inhibiting) on a stop-signal trial was .52, indicating that the tracking algorithm succeeded.”
§ Time perception, phonological skills and executive function in children with dyslexia and/or ADHD symptoms > Method > Tests and procedures
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Three children with AS-only, 5 with dyslexia+AS and 3 TD-controls displayed extreme performance on the duration discrimination (either because of very good or very poor performance).”
§ Time perception, phonological skills and executive function in children with dyslexia and/or ADHD symptoms > Results > Data treatment
plainn = 3- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These findings suggest that the children with dyslexia-only and AS-only exhibited mild symptoms of the other disorder, even though they did not meet our criteria for classification.”
§ Time perception, phonological skills and executive function in children with dyslexia and/or ADHD symptoms > Method > Participants
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
The children classified as having ADHD symptoms (AS) based on rating scales have ADHD as intended, despite the lack of a diagnostic assessment.
“The number of inattentive and hyperactive/impulsive symptoms associated with the child’s highest overall ADHD rating was used as a measure of AS”
“the lack of a diagnostic assessment of ADHD, which includes evidence of persistence and impairment, is a limitation in this study”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“accumulating evidence indicates that timing functions are impaired in a variety of developmental disorders including ADHD [32,33], dyslexia [34], and autism [35,36].”
From The Conceptual and Methodological Mayhem of “Screen Time” (2020) · cites this paper as [34]
Statistics that don’t add up
Each reported p-value recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
“t (15) = 2.82, p < .01”
§ Time perception, phonological skills and executive function in children with dyslexia and/or ADHD symptoms > Results > Time perception
Reported p < .01 · recomputed p = .013
Statistics recomputed
Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.
- Doesn’t add upt(15) = 2.82reported p < .01 · recomputed p = .013
“t (15) = 2.82, p < .01”
- Consistentt(39) = 2.39reported p < .05 · recomputed p = .022
“t (39) = 2.39, p < .05”
- Consistentt(40) = 1.89reported p = .07 · recomputed p = .066
“t (40) = 1.89, p = .07”
- Consistentt(40) = 1.63reported p = .11 · recomputed p = .111
“t (40) = 1.63, p = .11”
- Consistentt(40) = 2.03reported p < .05 · recomputed p = .049
“t (40) = 2.03, p < .05”
- Consistentt(16) = 3.7reported p < .01 · recomputed p = .002
“t (16) = 3.70, p < .01”
- Consistentt(40) = 0.43reported p = .67 · recomputed p = .670
“t (40) = .43, p = .67”
- ConsistentF(2.86, 254.45) = 39.78reported p < .01 · recomputed p < .001
“F (2.86, 254.45) = 39.78, p < .01”
- Consistentt(40) = 1.47reported p = .15 · recomputed p = .149
“t (40) = 1.47, p = .15”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
“| MRT (ms) | 653.97 | 172.58 | 35 | 663.72 | 142.19 | 17 | 726.93 | 174.30 | 17 | 685.42 | 171.46 | 24 | .19 | .00 | 1.70 | .02 | .50 | .01 |”
§ Time perception, phonological skills and executive function in children with dyslexia and/or ADHD symptoms > Results > Data treatment
Reported 336.47 · recomputed 302.66
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Time perception, phonological skills and executive function in children with dyslexia and/or ADHD symptoms > Method > Tests and procedures
“There were 24 items, and deletion of the specified phoneme always resulted in a word”
§ Time perception, phonological skills and executive function in children with dyslexia and/or ADHD symptoms > Results > Data treatment
“| Phoneme deletion (18) | 13.31 | 3.80 | 42 | 10.53 | 4.09 | 17 | 11.94 | 4.13 | 17 | 9.76 | 3.59 | 25 | 9.11** | .09 | 1.69 | .02 | .13 | .00 |”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Time perception, phonological skills and executive function in children with dyslexia and/or ADHD symptoms > Method > Tests and procedures
“The mean probability of responding (not inhibiting) on a stop-signal trial was .52”
§ Time perception, phonological skills and executive function in children with dyslexia and/or ADHD symptoms > Results > Data treatment
“| Probability of inhibition | .54 | .08 | 35 | .54 | .10 | 17 | .53 | .14 | 17 | .51 | .12 | 24 | .12 | .00 | .86 | .01 | .02 | .00 |”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Time perception, phonological skills and executive function in children with dyslexia and/or ADHD symptoms > Results > Data treatment
“| Digit recall (54) | 29.98 | 4.42 | 40 | 26.47 | 4.23 | 17 | 39.00 | 6.59 | 17 | 27.84 | 4.14 | 25 | 5.26* | .05 | .04 | .00 | 1.33 | .01 |”
§ Time perception, phonological skills and executive function in children with dyslexia and/or ADHD symptoms > Results > Phonological skills
“there were significant main effects of dyslexia but not AS on all the measures of phonological skill”
Citations
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“…disorder or oppositional defiant disorder; however, parents’ ratings of the children’s behaviour on the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ; Goodman, 2005, 1997) (see Table 1) indicated that the majority of children with AS were rated as abnormal on the SDQ total difficulties score.”
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“The response variability associated with AS may reflect a difficulty in sustaining attention or cognitive activation (Sergeant, 2000).”
Background
Research works printed but not linked: 4
- Elliott C.D., 1996, British Ability Scales II (BAS II)
- Gathercole S.E., 1996, Children’s test of Nonword Repetition (CNRep)
- Manly T., 1999, The Test of Everyday Attention for Children (TEA‐Ch)
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 101–159 of 159
Korolczuk, I., Burle, B., Casini, L. A., Gerc, K., Lustyk, D., Senderecka, M., & Coull, J. T. (2025) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0319621 · Cited by 6
Phonological effects on the perceptual weighting of voice cues for voice gender categorization
Jebens, A., Başkent, D., & Rachman, L. (2022) · JASA Express Letters · doi:10.1121/10.0016601 · Cited by 3
Agustina, M. T., Amaliyah, S., & Pavita, M. D. A. (2023) · International Journal of Research in Education · doi:10.26877/ijre.v3i2.15222 · Cited by 3
Testing Rhythmic Abilities in Developmental Dyslexia
Rossi, M., Smit, E. A., van der Werff, J., Ravignani, A., & Rathcke, T. V. (2024) · Music Perception An Interdisciplinary Journal · doi:10.1525/mp.2024.42.2.135 · Cited by 3
Reid, A. A. (2019) · IntechOpen eBooks · doi:10.5772/intechopen.80677 · Cited by 5
“See, for instance [109, 110], for findings which show that ADHD symptoms mediate deficits in developmental dyslexia.”
BackgroundMousinho, R., & Navas, A. L. (2016) · Debates em Psiquiatria · doi:10.25118/2236-918x-6-3-4 · Cited by 7
Horowitz‐Kraus, T. (2017) · Annals of Dyslexia · doi:10.1007/s11881-017-0144-8 · Cited by 3
Neuropsychological factors underlying developmental dyslexia, measured by NEPSY-I
Mohai, K. (2014) · Magyar Pszichológiai Szemle · doi:10.1556/mpszle.69.2014.1.5 · Cited by 2
Time and Number Sense Develop in Tandem?
Yates, M. J. (2012) · Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnint.2012.00012 · Cited by 2
“There is now also increasing interest in the possibility that ADHD and autism spectrum disorder involve an impairment of basic time sense and/or number sense (e.g., Boucher, 2001; Allman, 2011; Gooch et al., 2011).”
BackgroundBalıkçı, Ö. S., & Görgün, B. (2021) · e-Kafkas Eğitim Araştırmaları Dergisi · doi:10.30900/kafkasegt.959163 · Cited by 4
Linking ADHD – Dyslexia and Specific Learning Difficulties
Pavlidis, G. T., & Giannouli, V. (2014) · SAGE Publications Ltd eBooks · doi:10.4135/9781446247525.n16 · Cited by 2
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“A study((5)) described in this article compared the performance of children with ADHD or dyslexia with a group where the two features appeared as comorbidity (ADHD + dyslexia).”
Spontaneous and Stimulus-Driven Rhythmic Behaviors in ADHD Adults and ControlsPreprint
Amrani, A. K., & Golumbic, E. Z. (2019) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2019.12.24.887802 · Cited by 2
“associated with timing deficits and is highly comorbid with ADHD (François et al., 2013; Gooch et al., 2011; Luo et al., 2019; Thaut et al., 2015; Tiffin-Richards et al., 2004).”
BackgroundCatronas, D., Sousa, J., Batista, A. R., Torres, N. L., Mesquita, A., Folia, V., & Silva, S. (2023) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/rvmye · Cited by 1
Identification of signs of dyslexia test
Alves, R. J. R., de Lima, R. F., Nakano, T. D. C., & Ciasca, S. M. (2021) · Psico · doi:10.15448/1980-8623.2021.4.37093 · Cited by 1
Zuanetti, P. A., Pontes-Fernandes, Â. C., de Moraes, N. M., Hamad, A. P. A., & Fukuda, M. T. H. (2023) · Revista CEFAC · doi:10.1590/1982-0216/20232567723 · Cited by 1
Rossi, M., & Rathcke, T. V. (2025) · Reading Psychology · doi:10.1080/02702711.2025.2551563 · Cited by 1
“Even though DD is considered a deficit of written language processing, both adults and children with DD show a consistent phonological deficit (Bishop & Snowling, 2004; Catts et al., 2005; Gooch et al., 2011; Ramus, 2003).”
Galitskaya, V., Polydoros, G., Antoniou, A.-S., Pergantis, P., & Drigas, A. S. (2026) · Applied Sciences · doi:10.3390/app16083846 · Cited by 1
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Development of a Computerized Task for measuring Time Perception
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“Also, many studies revealed a defect in correct perception of time in dyslexic individuals [22].”
BackgroundA Machine Learning Study of Comorbidity of Dyslexia and Attention Deficiency Hyperactivity Disorder
Davakumar, B. J., & Siromoney, A. (2020) · IFIP advances in information and communication technology · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-63467-4_24 · Cited by 1
Revisión sistemática e implicaciones para el diagnóstico psicopedagógico: comorbilidad Dislexia/TDAH
Sánchez-Domenéch, I. (2022) · REOP - Revista Española de Orientación y Psicopedagogía · doi:10.5944/reop.vol.33.num.2.2022.34360 · Cited by 1
“TDAH, DD, GC 88 9.7-10.3 Chino Stubenrauch et al. (2014) TDAH, DD, TDAH+DD, GC 68 8-12 Alemán Crippa et al. (2015) TDAH, TDAH +TOD*, TDAH+DD, GC 104 7-12 Italiano Kibby et al. (2015) TDAH, DD, TDAH+DD, GC 264 8-12 Portugués Magallón et al. (2015) TDC+DD+TDAH, DD+TDAH, TDAH, GC 187 6-12 Español Alves et al. (2016) TDAH…”
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Neurosciences and Emotional Self-Regulation Applied to Mental Health Contexts
Calvetti, P. Ü., de Vargas, F., & Gauer, G. J. C. (2019) · IntechOpen eBooks · doi:10.5772/intechopen.83791 · Cited by 1
“However, the prefrontal cortex region is the last to develop, that is, to reach the maturational [36], therefore the EF takes longer to mature, and in adolescents this process is still under development.”
BackgroundMackenzie, G. (2019) · TSpace (University of Toronto) · Cited by 1
Mainstream but Specialized: Mobile Technology for Cognitive Support in Education
Iwabuchi, M., Takahashi, M., Nakamura, K., et al. (2012) · IEEE International Conference on Wireless, Mobile and Ubiquitous Technology in Education (WMUTE) · doi:10.1109/wmute.2012.28
“It has been shown that “children with co-morbid ADHD and dyslexia have the most significant timing deficits” [6].”
BackgroundAn examination of memory in children with inattention, hyperactivity, and depressive symptoms
Constance, J. (2013) · OpenSIUC (Southern Illinois University Carbondale)
Gould, K. M. (2015) · CU Scholar (University of Colorado Boulder)
A Comparison of Memory and Mental Development between Dyslexia and Normal Children
Soleimani, M., & Jabari, G. (2017) · DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)
Specifične teškoće učenja i cerebelarna teorija - uvid u zadatke ravnoteže i motorike
Lenček, M., Usorac, M., & Pavliša, J. I. (2017) · Hrvatska revija za rehabilitacijska istraživanja · doi:10.31299/hrri.53.1.8
The social construction of dyslexia in UK higher education
Campbell, S. C. (2017) · Sheffield Hallam University · doi:10.7190/shu-thesis-00039
Raviotta, S. (2017) · University of North Texas Digital Library (University of North Texas) · doi:10.12794/metadc984211
Botana, N. M. L. (2018) · Digital Library of Theses and Dissertations (Universidade de São Paulo) · doi:10.11606/d.5.2018.tde-28092018-093323
Bishara, S. (2019) · Journal of Educational Research and Reviews · doi:10.33495/jerr_v7i11.19.156
“The same literature also cites that children with a learning disability in reading exhibit deficiency in a wide variety of executive functioning measures (Gooch et al., 2011; Mayes et al., 2000; Reiter et al., 2005).”
BackgroundGoranova, Z. O. (2019) · University of Birmingham Institutional Research Archive (University of Birmingham)
Time will tell: Sluggish Cognitive Tempo, attention and timing functioning in adults
Müller, K. (2021) · University of Groningen research database (University of Groningen / Centre for Information Technology) · doi:10.33612/diss.171005987
Auditory Time Thresholds for Subsecond but not Suprasecond Stimuli are Impaired in ADHDPreprint
Anobile, G., Bartoli, M., Pfanner, C., et al. (2021) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-793140/v1
Alejsej Cvetkov, una brezza di vita
Liberti, D. (2013) · Poesia: mensile internazionale di cultura poetica
Radoń, E., Mak, M., & Samochowiec, J. (2022) · Archives of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy · doi:10.12740/app/148147
“It thus seems valid to consider including slow processing speed and reduced verbal fluency in the scope of executive dysfunctions present in the clinical picture of dyslexia [25, 26].”
BackgroundVonthron, F., Yuen, A., Pellerin, H., et al. (2022) · doi:10.2196/preprints.42733
Izadifar, M. (2022) · Neuroscience and Behavioral Physiology · doi:10.1007/s11055-022-01321-4
Nan, C. U. I., Jiuju, W. A. N. G., & Zhao, J. (2022) · Advances in Psychological Science · doi:10.3724/sp.j.1042.2023.00622
“1 ADHD和 DD的共同认知缺陷 关于ADHD和DD的共同认知缺陷仍处于探索之中,目前研究者主要认为语 音意识、言语工作记忆、视觉注意、加工速度等认知技能困难可能是两类障碍的 的共同缺陷因子。以往研究发现 DD 和 ADHD 均表现出了语音加工问题[36-38]、 言语工作记忆任务成绩低[5 17]、视觉注意[39 40]快速命名(特别是对物体、图形等 非言语刺激的快速命名)速度慢[41,42]、知觉加工速度低[16,43,44]等共享认知缺陷。同 时,有研究发现共患者在以上认知加工方面表现出了与单纯 ADHD 或单纯 DD 类似的显著缺陷[15-17 3742]。特别是在加工速度方面,已有研究对其在两种障碍 中的作用上进行了不…”
Svak skår på deltesten Tallhukommelse i WISC-V – en indikasjon på språklige vansker?
Egeland, J., Kovalik-Gran, I., Aarlien, A. K., & Lund, O. (2023) · Tidsskrift for Norsk psykologforening · doi:10.52734/pavy2401
How “Specific” Are Specific Learning Disabilities After All?
Zerva, I. K., & Bonti, E. (2023) · Advances in psychology, mental health, and behavioral studies (APMHBS) book series · doi:10.4018/979-8-3693-0644-4.ch012
Zuanetti, P. A., Pontes-Fernandes, Â. C., de Moraes, N. M., Hamad, A. P. A., & Fukuda, M. T. H. (2023) · Revista CEFAC · doi:10.1590/1982-0216/20232567723s
Inferior auditory time perception in children with motor difficultiesPreprint
Chang, A., Li, Y., Chan, J. F., et al. (2024) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/vgzjw
Effects of executive function deficits on Chinese reading ability in ADHD patientsPreprint
Wei, J., & zhang, W. (2024) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-4230998/v1
Dyslexia: Disclaiming Reading Ability Langke Rembong District Primary School Level
Silaen, D., & Aprilia, I. D. (2024) · Proceeding of International Conference on Special Education in South East Asia Region · doi:10.57142/picsar.v3i1.508
Nasi, M. N., Khanjani, Z., & Hashemi, T. (2025) · International Journal of Inclusive Education · doi:10.1080/13603116.2025.2573009
“Time perception deficits are not only linked to reading difficulties but also to broader academic challenges, such as task completion and organisation, which are critical for academic achievement (Gooch, Snowling, and Hulme 2011).”
Time Perception in Psychiatric Disorders
Marazziti, D., Gambini, M., Pescini, E., & Gurrieri, R. (2026) · Psychiatric Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/j.psc.2026.01.008
Développement, temps et attention : comportements et modélisation.
Hallez, Q. (2019) · theses.fr (ABES) · doi:10.70675/1a845aecz6f6dz4894zad6aze46a9f9d9c2d
Saemi, M., & Gharibzade, S. (2026) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-9711275/v1
Poon, K., Xu, J.-Q., Yum, Y. N., & Ho, M. S. H. (2026) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2026.e45306
Zamo, R. D. S. (2011) · Americanae (AECID Library)
Metadata
- Authors
- Gooch, D., Snowling, M., & Hulme, C.
- Affiliations
- University of York (GB)
- Venue
- Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2010-09-23
- Volume
- 52
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 195-203
- ISSN
- 0021-9630 (ISSN-L)
- 1469-7610
- PMC
- PMC3412207
- OpenAlex
- W2114204835
- Cited by
- 157
- References
- 42
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 5 · 2024: 7 · 2023: 11 · 2022: 10 · 2021: 9 · 2020: 9 · 2019: 15 · 2018: 8 · 2017: 8 · 2016: 17 · 2015: 16 · 2014: 10 · 2013: 13 · 2012: 10
- FWCI
- 5.89
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Surrey Research Insight Open Access (The University of Surrey) (submittedVersion)
- Research Bank (Australian Catholic University) (submittedVersion)
- UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Wellcome Trust (082036)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Reading and Literacy Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
- Keywords
- time perception, duration discrimination, time reproduction, phonological skills, executive function, dyslexia, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, comorbidities, inattention, children
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity, Child, Dyslexia, Female, Humans, Male, Neuropsychological Tests, Phonetics, Reading, Time Perception, Verbal Learning, Comorbidity, Case-Control Studies, Executive Function
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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