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Cited by 2,555Reading and Literacy DevelopmentDevelopmental and Educational NeuropsychologyLanguage Development and Disorders

Specific reading disability (dyslexia): what have we learned in the past four decades?

Vellutino, Frank R., Fletcher, Jack M., Snowling, Margaret J., Scanlon, Donna M.·2004·Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry
DOI 10.1046/j.0021-9630.2003.00305.x
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Abstract

We summarize some of the most important findings from research evaluating the hypothesized causes of specific reading disability (‘dyslexia’) over the past four decades. After outlining components of reading ability, we discuss manifest causes of reading difficulties, in terms of deficiencies in component reading skills that might lead to such difficulties. The evidence suggests that inadequate facility in word identification due, in most cases, to more basic deficits in alphabetic coding is the basic cause of difficulties in learning to read. We next discuss hypothesized deficiencies in reading‐related cognitive abilities as underlying causes of deficiencies in component reading skills. The evidence in these areas suggests that, in most cases, phonological skills deficiencies associated with phonological coding deficits are the probable causes of the disorder rather than visual, semantic, or syntactic deficits, although reading difficulties in some children may be associated with general language deficits. Hypothesized deficits in general learning abilities (e.g., attention, association learning, cross‐modal transfer etc.) and low‐level sensory deficits have weak validity as causal factors in specific reading disability. These inferences are, by and large, supported by research evaluating the biological foundations of dyslexia. Finally, evidence is presented in support of the idea that many poor readers are impaired because of inadequate instruction or other experiential factors. This does not mean that biological factors are not relevant, because the brain and environment interact to produce the neural networks that support reading acquisition. We conclude with a discussion of the clinical implications of the research findings, focusing on the need for enhanced instruction.

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Authors
Vellutino, F. R., Fletcher, J. M., Snowling, M. J., & Scanlon, D. M.
Affiliations
  • State University of New York (US)
  • The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston (US)
  • University of York (GB)
  • University at Albany, State University of New York (US)
ORCID
Venue
Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry
Publisher
Wiley
Published
2004-01
Volume
45
Issue
1
Pages
2-40
ISSN
  • 0021-9630 (ISSN-L)
  • 1469-7610
DOI
10.1046/j.0021-9630.2003.00305.x
OpenAlex
W2096587741
Cited by
2,555
References
269
Citations by year
2026: 85 · 2025: 98 · 2024: 105 · 2023: 104 · 2022: 124 · 2021: 140 · 2020: 122 · 2019: 144 · 2018: 128 · 2017: 141 · 2016: 137 · 2015: 143 · 2014: 160 · 2013: 151 · 2012: 140
FWCI
11.41
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
closed
Licence
onlinelibrary.wiley.com/termsAndConditions#vor (vor, 8 d)
Locations
  • Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders
  • National Institutes of Health (5p50hd025806-05, 5r01hd035938-03)
  • Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (P50 HD25806, R01 HD35938, P50 HD21888)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Reading and Literacy Development
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Language Development and Disorders
Keywords
dyslexia, specific reading disability, word recognition, phonological skills, learning disabilities, attention deficits, sensory impairment, reading instruction, brain-environment interaction
MeSH terms
Brain, Child, Cognition, Cross-Cultural Comparison, Culture, Dyslexia, Humans, Language

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