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Flawed Self-Assessment: Implications for Health, Education, and the Workplace
Open accessAbstract
Research from numerous corners of psychological inquiry suggests that self-assessments of skill and character are often flawed in substantive and systematic ways. We review empirical findings on the imperfect nature of self-assessment and discuss implications for three real-world domains: health, education, and the workplace. In general, people's self-views hold only a tenuous to modest relationship with their actual behavior and performance. The correlation between self-ratings of skill and actual performance in many domains is moderate to meager—indeed, at times, other people's predictions of a person's outcomes prove more accurate than that person's self-predictions. In addition, people overrate themselves. On average, people say that they are “above average” in skill (a conclusion that defies statistical possibility), overestimate the likelihood that they will engage in desirable behaviors and achieve favorable outcomes, furnish overly optimistic estimates of when they will complete future projects, and reach judgments with too much confidence. Several psychological processes conspire to produce flawed self-assessments. Research focusing on health echoes these findings. People are unrealistically optimistic about their own health risks compared with those of other people. They also overestimate how distinctive their opinions and preferences (e.g., discomfort with alcohol) are among their peers—a misperception that can have a deleterious impact on their health. Unable to anticipate how they would respond to emotion-laden situations, they mispredict the preferences of patients when asked to step in and make treatment decisions for them. Guided by mistaken but seemingly plausible theories of health and disease, people misdiagnose themselves—a phenomenon that can have severe consequences for their health and longevity. Similarly, research in education finds that students' assessments of their performance tend to agree only moderately with those of their teachers and mentors. Students seem largely unable to assess how well or poorly they have comprehended material they have just read. They also tend to be overconfident in newly learned skills, at times because the common educational practice of massed training appears to promote rapid acquisition of skill—as well as self-confidence—but not necessarily the retention of skill. Several interventions, however, can be introduced to prompt students to evaluate their skill and learning more accurately. In the workplace, flawed self-assessments arise all the way up the corporate ladder. Employees tend to overestimate their skill, making it difficult to give meaningful feedback. CEOs also display overconfidence in their judgments, particularly when stepping into new markets or novel projects—for example, proposing acquisitions that hurt, rather then help, the price of their company's stock. We discuss several interventions aimed at circumventing the consequences of such flawed assessments; these include training people to routinely make cognitive repairs correcting for biased self-assessments and requiring people to justify their decisions in front of their peers. The act of self-assessment is an intrinsically difficult task, and we enumerate several obstacles that prevent people from reaching truthful self-impressions. We also propose that researchers and practitioners should recognize self-assessment as a coherent and unified area of study spanning many subdisciplines of psychology and beyond. Finally, we suggest that policymakers and other people who makes real-world assessments should be wary of self-assessments of skill, expertise, and knowledge, and should consider ways of repairing self-assessments that may be flawed.
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“Learning about notions of quality through assessing the work of peers may reduce the effect of cognitive biases directed towards the self when undertaking self-assessment (Dunning et al. 2004).”
From Developing evaluative judgement: enabling students to make decisions about the quality of work (2018) · cites this paper as Dunning et al. 2004
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“human beings do show a tendency to leap to conclusions about themselves, other people, and the world based on limited information and misperceptions about the extent and generalizability of prior knowledge and experiences (Dunning, Heath, & Suls, 2004).”
From Psychological flexibility as a fundamental aspect of health (2010) · cites this paper as Dunning, Heath, & Suls, 2004
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“Feedback helps students make sense of their learning and compare their performance against a recognized standard. 1-3”
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BackgroundAssessing leadership derailment factors in 360° feedback
Tang, K. Y., Dai, G., & Meuse, K. P. D. (2013) · Leadership & Organization Development Journal · doi:10.1108/lodj-07-2011-0070 · Cited by 25
Preliminary validation of a tool to assess competencies for professional geropsychology practice.
Karel, M. J., Holley, C. K., Whitbourne, S. K., Segal, D. L., Tazeau, Y. N., Emery‐Tiburcio, E. E., Molinari, V., Yang, J. A., & Zweig, R. A. (2012) · Professional Psychology Research and Practice · doi:10.1037/a0025788 · Cited by 25
Silveira, J. M., & Gavin, R. B. (2015) · Psychology of Music · doi:10.1177/0305735615596375 · Cited by 25
Development of the Psychologist and Counsellor Self-Efficacy Scale
Watt, H. M. G., Ehrich, J. F., Stewart, S. E., Snell, T., Bucich, M., Jacobs, N., Furlonger, B., & English, D. L. (2019) · Higher Education Skills and Work-based Learning · doi:10.1108/heswbl-07-2018-0069 · Cited by 25
Pass, J. A., & Nooij, J. (2009) · doi:10.13140/rg.2.2.31965.12009 · Cited by 25
Lane, R. D., Carmichael, C. L., & Reis, H. T. (2011) · Psychosomatic Medicine · doi:10.1097/psy.0b013e318203b86a · Cited by 25
New age advice: ticket to happiness?
Berg, M. C. (2007) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-006-9038-x · Cited by 26
Conceptualizing Learning Agility and Investigating its Nomological Network
Allen, J. (2016) · FIU - Digital Commons (Florida International University) · doi:10.25148/etd.fidc000747 · Cited by 26
Motivated health risk denial and preventative health care investments
Schwardmann, P. (2019) · Journal of Health Economics · doi:10.1016/j.jhealeco.2019.01.005 · Cited by 26
“Dupas (2011) argues that developing-country prevention expenditures are very sensitive to price changes. For example, Cohen and Dupas (2010) and Kremer and Miguel (2007) find that moving from zero to positive prices that remain affordable to most potential customers decreases the take up of bed nets and deworming medi…”
Attainment-aspiration gap in students with a migration background: The role of self-efficacy
McElvany, N., Ferdinand, H. D., Gebauer, M. M., Bos, W., Huelmann, T., Köller, O., & Schöber, C. (2018) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2018.05.002 · Cited by 24
Rebar, A. L., Dimmock, J. A., Rhodes, R. E., & Jackson, B. (2018) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2018.07.010 · Cited by 24
Flawed self‐assessment in hand hygiene: A major contributor to infections in clinical practice?
Kelčíková, S., Mazúchová, L., Bielena, L., & Filová, L. (2019) · Journal of Clinical Nursing · doi:10.1111/jocn.14823 · Cited by 24
Universality and situatedness in educating choral conductors
Jansson, D., Elstad, B., & Døving, E. (2019) · Music Education Research · doi:10.1080/14613808.2019.1626362 · Cited by 29
“…that self-assessments are valid measures as indicated by a general correspondence with job performance measures (Mabe and West 1982) and that there is medium or good correspondence between self-assessment and other means of assessing competence (Davis et al. 2006; Dunning, Heath, and Suls 2004).”
BackgroundSelf-face and emotional faces—are they alike?
Żochowska, A., Nowicka, M. M., Wójcik, M. J., & Nowicka, A. (2021) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nsab020 · Cited by 26
“The self-positivity bias is one of the most commonfindings in social psychology (Dunning et al., 2004; Alicke et al., 2005).”
BackgroundConsumers Believe That Products Work Better for Others
Polman, E., Ziano, I., Wu, K., & Kerckhove, A. V. (2021) · Journal of Consumer Research · doi:10.1093/jcr/ucab048 · Cited by 26
Stajković, A. D., Lee, D., Greenwald, J. M., & Raffiee, J. (2015) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2015.02.001 · Cited by 24
Continuing Professional Development – Reflections from nursing and education
Kemp, S. J., & Baker, M. J. (2013) · Nurse Education in Practice · doi:10.1016/j.nepr.2013.04.009 · Cited by 26
Implementing Recommendations for Introductory Biology by Writing a New Textbook
Barsoum, M. J., SELLERS, P. J., Campbell, A. M., Heyer, L. J., & Paradise, C. J. (2013) · CBE—Life Sciences Education · doi:10.1187/cbe.12-06-0086 · Cited by 24
What does it Mean to be a Rational Decision Maker?
Schwartz, B. N. (2015) · Journal of Marketing Behavior · doi:10.1561/107.00000007 · Cited by 25
Levels of knowledge and deliberate practice.
Pachman, M., Sweller, J., & Kalyuga, S. (2013) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Applied · doi:10.1037/a0032149 · Cited by 26
Metadata
- Authors
- Dunning, D., Heath, C., & Suls, J. M.
- Affiliations
- Cornell University (US)
- Stanford University (US)
- University of Iowa (US)
- Venue
- Psychological Science in the Public Interest
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2004-12
- Volume
- 5
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 69-106
- ISSN
- 1539-6053 (ISSN-L)
- 1529-1006
- OpenAlex
- W2139736795
- Cited by
- 1,865
- References
- 310
- Citations by year
- 2026: 107 · 2025: 89 · 2024: 104 · 2023: 76 · 2022: 104 · 2021: 103 · 2020: 110 · 2019: 114 · 2018: 113 · 2017: 98 · 2016: 102 · 2015: 111 · 2014: 99 · 2013: 82 · 2012: 90
- FWCI
- 35.81
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Gothic.net (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation (9910592)
- National Institute of Mental Health (RO1 56072)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › General Decision Sciences › Decision-Making and Behavioral Economics
- Social Sciences › Education › Student Assessment and Feedback
- Keywords
- self-assessment, overconfidence, above-average effect, self-prediction, self-efficacy, health risk perception, self-diagnosis, student self-assessment, skill retention, massed practice, CEO overconfidence, management decision-making, feedback, self-knowledge, self-regulation, self-monitoring
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