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Flawed Self-Assessment: Implications for Health, Education, and the Workplace
Open accessAbstract
Research from numerous corners of psychological inquiry suggests that self-assessments of skill and character are often flawed in substantive and systematic ways. We review empirical findings on the imperfect nature of self-assessment and discuss implications for three real-world domains: health, education, and the workplace. In general, people's self-views hold only a tenuous to modest relationship with their actual behavior and performance. The correlation between self-ratings of skill and actual performance in many domains is moderate to meager—indeed, at times, other people's predictions of a person's outcomes prove more accurate than that person's self-predictions. In addition, people overrate themselves. On average, people say that they are “above average” in skill (a conclusion that defies statistical possibility), overestimate the likelihood that they will engage in desirable behaviors and achieve favorable outcomes, furnish overly optimistic estimates of when they will complete future projects, and reach judgments with too much confidence. Several psychological processes conspire to produce flawed self-assessments. Research focusing on health echoes these findings. People are unrealistically optimistic about their own health risks compared with those of other people. They also overestimate how distinctive their opinions and preferences (e.g., discomfort with alcohol) are among their peers—a misperception that can have a deleterious impact on their health. Unable to anticipate how they would respond to emotion-laden situations, they mispredict the preferences of patients when asked to step in and make treatment decisions for them. Guided by mistaken but seemingly plausible theories of health and disease, people misdiagnose themselves—a phenomenon that can have severe consequences for their health and longevity. Similarly, research in education finds that students' assessments of their performance tend to agree only moderately with those of their teachers and mentors. Students seem largely unable to assess how well or poorly they have comprehended material they have just read. They also tend to be overconfident in newly learned skills, at times because the common educational practice of massed training appears to promote rapid acquisition of skill—as well as self-confidence—but not necessarily the retention of skill. Several interventions, however, can be introduced to prompt students to evaluate their skill and learning more accurately. In the workplace, flawed self-assessments arise all the way up the corporate ladder. Employees tend to overestimate their skill, making it difficult to give meaningful feedback. CEOs also display overconfidence in their judgments, particularly when stepping into new markets or novel projects—for example, proposing acquisitions that hurt, rather then help, the price of their company's stock. We discuss several interventions aimed at circumventing the consequences of such flawed assessments; these include training people to routinely make cognitive repairs correcting for biased self-assessments and requiring people to justify their decisions in front of their peers. The act of self-assessment is an intrinsically difficult task, and we enumerate several obstacles that prevent people from reaching truthful self-impressions. We also propose that researchers and practitioners should recognize self-assessment as a coherent and unified area of study spanning many subdisciplines of psychology and beyond. Finally, we suggest that policymakers and other people who makes real-world assessments should be wary of self-assessments of skill, expertise, and knowledge, and should consider ways of repairing self-assessments that may be flawed.
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“Learning about notions of quality through assessing the work of peers may reduce the effect of cognitive biases directed towards the self when undertaking self-assessment (Dunning et al. 2004).”
From Developing evaluative judgement: enabling students to make decisions about the quality of work (2018) · cites this paper as Dunning et al. 2004
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“human beings do show a tendency to leap to conclusions about themselves, other people, and the world based on limited information and misperceptions about the extent and generalizability of prior knowledge and experiences (Dunning, Heath, & Suls, 2004).”
From Psychological flexibility as a fundamental aspect of health (2010) · cites this paper as Dunning, Heath, & Suls, 2004
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Klein, W. M. P., Harris, P. R., Ferrer, R. A., & Zajac, L. E. (2011) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2011.05.005 · Cited by 74
Mora, P. A., DiBonaventura, M., Idler, E. L., Leventhal, E. A., & Leventhal, H. (2008) · Annals of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s12160-008-9065-4 · Cited by 76
Critcher, C. R., & Dunning, D. A. (2009) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0017452 · Cited by 74
Self-citationHowell, J. L., & Ratliff, K. A. (2017) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjso.12168 · Cited by 67
Feldon, D. F., Maher, M., Hurst, M. D., & Timmerman, B. E. (2014) · American Educational Research Journal · doi:10.3102/0002831214549449 · Cited by 75
Characterizing illusions of competence in introductory chemistry students
Pazicni, S., & Bauer, C. F. (2013) · Chemistry Education Research and Practice · doi:10.1039/c3rp00106g · Cited by 73
Peterson, E. R., Brown, G., & Jun, M. C. (2015) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.05.002 · Cited by 93
The effects of peer judgements on teamwork and self-assessment ability in collaborative group work
Sridharan, B., & Boud, D. J. (2019) · Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/02602938.2018.1545898 · Cited by 76
“Studies suggest that self-assessed grades are flawed as a measure of performance with significant gaps between perception and reality (Dunning, Heath, and Suls 2004; Johnson and Molloy 2018).”
BackgroundMacdonald, J. B., & Mellor‐Clark, J. (2014) · Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.1887 · Cited by 85
“ness in general, or, alternatively, whether therapists are subject to the ‘above average effect’ seen in other contexts (Dunning et al., 2004).”
BackgroundInfluentialFriends, not foes?: Work design and formalization in the modern work context
Juillerat, T. L. (2010) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.654 · Cited by 72
Kinnear, B., Warm, E. J., & Hauer, K. E. (2018) · Medical Teacher · doi:10.1080/0142159x.2018.1474191 · Cited by 73
“Although self-assessment can be inaccurate (Dunning et al. 2004; Davis et al. 2006), it can be improved with provision of evidence about performance relative to defined standards (Sargeant et al. 2010).”
BackgroundValidity evidence for the situational judgment test paradigm in emotional intelligence measurement
Libbrecht, N., & Lievens, F. (2012) · International Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00207594.2012.682063 · Cited by 71
Individual differences in ideological attitudes and prejudice: Evidence from peer-report data.
Cohrs, J. C., Kämpfe, N., & Riemann, R. (2012) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0028706 · Cited by 70
Disentangling the role of users’ preferences and impulsivity traits in problematic Facebook use
Rothen, S., Briefer, J.-F., Deleuze, J., Karila, L., Andreassen, C. S., Achab, S., Thorens, G., Khazaal, Y., ZULLINO, D. F., & Billieux, J. (2018) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0201971 · Cited by 81
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“This method is however far from perfect (Dunning et al. 2004) with important drawbacks including: – priming, which occurs when user’s feedback is influenced by the feedback of other users (Sabini et al. 1999), – biases, which occur when the user gives feedback that differs from the actual…”
MethodTwo factors of expertise? Excellence and professionalism of environmental experts
Mieg, H. A. (2009) · High Ability Studies · doi:10.1080/13598130902860432 · Cited by 74
Schrauf, R. W. (2009) · Journal of Cross-Cultural Gerontology · doi:10.1007/s10823-009-9091-0 · Cited by 68
Vago, D. R. (2014) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/nyas.12270 · Cited by 66
Öğretmen Adaylarının Eğitim Programı Okuryazarlığı Düzeyleri
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A Multi‐Source, Multi‐Study Investigation of Job Performance Prediction by Political Skill
Blickle, G., Ferris, G. R., Munyon, T. P., Momm, T. D., Zettler, I., Schneider, P. B., & Buckley, M. R. (2011) · Applied Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1464-0597.2011.00443.x · Cited by 67
Underpredicting Learning after Initial Experience with a Product
Billeter, D., Kalra, A., & Loewenstein, G. F. (2010) · Journal of Consumer Research · doi:10.1086/655862 · Cited by 70
Balcetis, E., Dunning, D. A., & Miller, R. L. (2008) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0013195 · Cited by 67
Self-citation
Metadata
- Authors
- Dunning, D., Heath, C., & Suls, J. M.
- Affiliations
- Cornell University (US)
- Stanford University (US)
- University of Iowa (US)
- Venue
- Psychological Science in the Public Interest
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2004-12
- Volume
- 5
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 69-106
- ISSN
- 1539-6053 (ISSN-L)
- 1529-1006
- OpenAlex
- W2139736795
- Cited by
- 1,865
- References
- 310
- Citations by year
- 2026: 107 · 2025: 89 · 2024: 104 · 2023: 76 · 2022: 104 · 2021: 103 · 2020: 110 · 2019: 114 · 2018: 113 · 2017: 98 · 2016: 102 · 2015: 111 · 2014: 99 · 2013: 82 · 2012: 90
- FWCI
- 35.81
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Gothic.net (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation (9910592)
- National Institute of Mental Health (RO1 56072)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › General Decision Sciences › Decision-Making and Behavioral Economics
- Social Sciences › Education › Student Assessment and Feedback
- Keywords
- self-assessment, overconfidence, above-average effect, self-prediction, self-efficacy, health risk perception, self-diagnosis, student self-assessment, skill retention, massed practice, CEO overconfidence, management decision-making, feedback, self-knowledge, self-regulation, self-monitoring
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