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Flawed Self-Assessment: Implications for Health, Education, and the Workplace
Open accessAbstract
Research from numerous corners of psychological inquiry suggests that self-assessments of skill and character are often flawed in substantive and systematic ways. We review empirical findings on the imperfect nature of self-assessment and discuss implications for three real-world domains: health, education, and the workplace. In general, people's self-views hold only a tenuous to modest relationship with their actual behavior and performance. The correlation between self-ratings of skill and actual performance in many domains is moderate to meager—indeed, at times, other people's predictions of a person's outcomes prove more accurate than that person's self-predictions. In addition, people overrate themselves. On average, people say that they are “above average” in skill (a conclusion that defies statistical possibility), overestimate the likelihood that they will engage in desirable behaviors and achieve favorable outcomes, furnish overly optimistic estimates of when they will complete future projects, and reach judgments with too much confidence. Several psychological processes conspire to produce flawed self-assessments. Research focusing on health echoes these findings. People are unrealistically optimistic about their own health risks compared with those of other people. They also overestimate how distinctive their opinions and preferences (e.g., discomfort with alcohol) are among their peers—a misperception that can have a deleterious impact on their health. Unable to anticipate how they would respond to emotion-laden situations, they mispredict the preferences of patients when asked to step in and make treatment decisions for them. Guided by mistaken but seemingly plausible theories of health and disease, people misdiagnose themselves—a phenomenon that can have severe consequences for their health and longevity. Similarly, research in education finds that students' assessments of their performance tend to agree only moderately with those of their teachers and mentors. Students seem largely unable to assess how well or poorly they have comprehended material they have just read. They also tend to be overconfident in newly learned skills, at times because the common educational practice of massed training appears to promote rapid acquisition of skill—as well as self-confidence—but not necessarily the retention of skill. Several interventions, however, can be introduced to prompt students to evaluate their skill and learning more accurately. In the workplace, flawed self-assessments arise all the way up the corporate ladder. Employees tend to overestimate their skill, making it difficult to give meaningful feedback. CEOs also display overconfidence in their judgments, particularly when stepping into new markets or novel projects—for example, proposing acquisitions that hurt, rather then help, the price of their company's stock. We discuss several interventions aimed at circumventing the consequences of such flawed assessments; these include training people to routinely make cognitive repairs correcting for biased self-assessments and requiring people to justify their decisions in front of their peers. The act of self-assessment is an intrinsically difficult task, and we enumerate several obstacles that prevent people from reaching truthful self-impressions. We also propose that researchers and practitioners should recognize self-assessment as a coherent and unified area of study spanning many subdisciplines of psychology and beyond. Finally, we suggest that policymakers and other people who makes real-world assessments should be wary of self-assessments of skill, expertise, and knowledge, and should consider ways of repairing self-assessments that may be flawed.
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“Learning about notions of quality through assessing the work of peers may reduce the effect of cognitive biases directed towards the self when undertaking self-assessment (Dunning et al. 2004).”
From Developing evaluative judgement: enabling students to make decisions about the quality of work (2018) · cites this paper as Dunning et al. 2004
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“human beings do show a tendency to leap to conclusions about themselves, other people, and the world based on limited information and misperceptions about the extent and generalizability of prior knowledge and experiences (Dunning, Heath, & Suls, 2004).”
From Psychological flexibility as a fundamental aspect of health (2010) · cites this paper as Dunning, Heath, & Suls, 2004
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“Feedback helps students make sense of their learning and compare their performance against a recognized standard. 1-3”
From Medical student perceptions of feedback and feedback behaviors within the context of the “educational alliance.” (2017) · cites this paper as [3]
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Cognitive load theory: Practical implications and an important challenge
Leppink, J. (2017) · Journal of Taibah University Medical Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.jtumed.2017.05.003 · Cited by 136
Only human: Exploring the nature of weakness in authentic leadership
Diddams, M., & Chang, G. C. (2012) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2011.12.010 · Cited by 125
How emotionally intelligent are pre-service teachers?
Corcoran, R. P., & Tormey, R. (2012) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/j.tate.2012.02.007 · Cited by 130
Jones, L., Pomeroy, L., Robert, G., Burnett, S. J., Anderson, J. E., & Fulop, N. (2017) · BMJ Quality & Safety · doi:10.1136/bmjqs-2016-006433 · Cited by 107
Students' Academic Self-Perception
Chevalier, A., Gibbons, S., Thorpe, A., Snell, M. C., & Hoskins, S. (2007) · Economics of Education Review · doi:10.1016/j.econedurev.2009.06.007 · Cited by 107
Self-image Goals and Compassionate Goals: Costs and Benefits
Crocker, J., Olivier, M.-A., & Nuer, N. (2009) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298860802505160 · Cited by 113
Reporting biases in self-assessed physical and cognitive health status of older Europeans
Spitzer, S., & Weber, D. (2019) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0223526 · Cited by 118
“In psychology, the consequences of wrong self-awareness of cognitive abilities are discussed as the Dunning-Kruger effect, which states that unable individuals are especially prone to overestimate their abilities [70,71].”
BackgroundAmdurer, E., Boyatzis, R. E., Saatcioglu, A., Smith, M. L., & Taylor, S. N. (2014) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01447 · Cited by 121
“On the other hand, as noted earlier, it is well established that people are both biased and unreliable when they assess their own abilities (Dunning et al., 2004), and management education practice and research are not immune to these challenges (Taylor, 2014).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-Efficacy From the Perspective of Adolescents With LD and Their Specialist Teachers
Klassen, R. M., & Lynch, S. (2007) · Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1177/00222194070400060201 · Cited by 108
Rosenbloom, T., Shahar, A., Elharar, A., & Danino, O. (2007) · Accident Analysis & Prevention · doi:10.1016/j.aap.2007.09.007 · Cited by 104
On confident men and rational women: It’s all on your mind(set)
Hügelschäfer, S., & Achtziger, A. (2013) · Journal of Economic Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.joep.2013.04.001 · Cited by 111
Self-generated persuasion: Effects of the target and direction of arguments.
Briñol, P., McCaslin, M. J., & Petty, R. E. (2012) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0027231 · Cited by 114
Throuvala, M. A., Janikian, M., Griffiths, M. D., Rennoldson, M., & Kuss, D. J. (2019) · Journal of Behavioral Addictions · doi:10.1556/2006.8.2019.05 · Cited by 106
Everyday Conceptions of Modesty: A Prototype Analysis
Gregg, A. P., Hart, C. M., Sedikides, C., & Kumashiro, M. (2008) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167208316734 · Cited by 147
Metadata
- Authors
- Dunning, D., Heath, C., & Suls, J. M.
- Affiliations
- Cornell University (US)
- Stanford University (US)
- University of Iowa (US)
- Venue
- Psychological Science in the Public Interest
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2004-12
- Volume
- 5
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 69-106
- ISSN
- 1539-6053 (ISSN-L)
- 1529-1006
- OpenAlex
- W2139736795
- Cited by
- 1,865
- References
- 310
- Citations by year
- 2026: 107 · 2025: 89 · 2024: 104 · 2023: 76 · 2022: 104 · 2021: 103 · 2020: 110 · 2019: 114 · 2018: 113 · 2017: 98 · 2016: 102 · 2015: 111 · 2014: 99 · 2013: 82 · 2012: 90
- FWCI
- 35.81
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Gothic.net (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation (9910592)
- National Institute of Mental Health (RO1 56072)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › General Decision Sciences › Decision-Making and Behavioral Economics
- Social Sciences › Education › Student Assessment and Feedback
- Keywords
- self-assessment, overconfidence, above-average effect, self-prediction, self-efficacy, health risk perception, self-diagnosis, student self-assessment, skill retention, massed practice, CEO overconfidence, management decision-making, feedback, self-knowledge, self-regulation, self-monitoring
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