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Crisis Management in Hindsight: Cognition, Communication, Coordination, and Control
Abstract
This article argues that cognition is central to performance in emergency management. Cognition is defined as the capacity to recognize the degree of emerging risk to which a community is exposed and to act on that information. Using the case of Hurricane Katrina to illustrate the collapse of the standard model of emergency management without a clear focus on the role of cognition, the author reframes the concept of intergovernmental crisis management as a complex, adaptive system. That is, the system needs to adjust and adapt its performance to fit the demands of an ever‐changing physical, engineered, and social environment. The terms of cognition, communication, coordination, and control are redefined in ways that fit the reality of practice in extreme events. A reframed intergovernmental crisis management system may be conceived as a dynamic interorganizational system that is characterized by four primary decision points: (1) detection of risk, (2) recognition and interpretation of risk for the immediate context, (3) communication of risk to multiple organizations in a wider region, and (4) self‐organization and mobilization of a collective, community response system to reduce risk and respond to danger.
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“Cognition is the ability to recognise an emerging risk and understand its nature, size and potential impact across different aspects of society and everyday life, policy arenas and their interaction based on processing detected information (Comfort, 2007) representing the first line of defence in protecting human security.”
From Risk Governance, State Capacity, and Critical Human Security: Evolution of Risk Governance in Response to Systemic Risk in the UK and South Korea (2025) · cites this paper as Comfort, 2007
In the citing paper
“Kwon et al, (2023), drawing on Comfort (2007) and Farazmand (2007) have highlighted three key components of state capacity for crisis governance -cognition, co-ordination, and capacity to implement (see Figure 1).”
From Risk Governance, State Capacity, and Critical Human Security: Evolution of Risk Governance in Response to Systemic Risk in the UK and South Korea (2025) · cites this paper as Comfort (2007)
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BackgroundEarly warning information seeking in the 2009 V ictorian B ushfires
Choo, C. W., & Nadarajah, I. (2013) · Journal of the Association for Information Science and Technology · doi:10.1002/asi.22952 · Cited by 27
“(Basher, 2006, p. 2175) Comfort (2007) presents a bowtie architecture for communicating risk information and managing the flow of information in a crisis situation.”
BackgroundWolbers, J., Ferguson, J., Groenewegen, P., Mulder, F., & Boersma, K. (2016) · International Journal of Mass Emergencies & Disasters · doi:10.1177/028072701603400304 · Cited by 33
“Hurricane Katrina and the Haiti earthquake became classic examples of failing response management: coordination between the responders, relief workers and citizens occurred haphazardly if at all (Comfort 2007; Majchrzak et al. 2007).”
BackgroundInfluentialCasalegno, C., Civera, C., Cortese, D., & Zardini, A. (2023) · Journal of Innovation & Knowledge · doi:10.1016/j.jik.2023.100337 · Cited by 26
“…the capacity of management to trans-parently and clearly communicate the complexity brought about by a crisis event, both internally and externally (Comfort, 2007; Osborne et al., 2013; Trinchero et al., 2020); this can be done by sharing the plan ’ s contents and objectives and creating a…”
Understanding distributed sensemaking in crisis management: The case of the Utrecht terrorist attack
Wolbers, J. (2021) · Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management · doi:10.1111/1468-5973.12382 · Cited by 37
Cognition, Collective Action, and COVID-19: Managing Crises in Real Time
Comfort, L. K. (2022) · Public Performance & Management Review · doi:10.1080/15309576.2022.2036204 · Cited by 26
“It represents that flash of understanding which enables one to structure information to take action (Comfort, 2007; Comfort et al., 2020).”
BackgroundSelf-citationZhong, K., Liu, Y., & Christensen, T. (2022) · International Public Management Journal · doi:10.1080/10967494.2022.2073411 · Cited by 29
“Coordination involves a set of activities or processes aimed at achieving common objectives that cannot be accomplished by a single organization or actor (Comfort 2007; Jarzabkowski, Lê, and Feldman 2012).”
BackgroundNetwork Management in Emergency Response
Brooks, J. M., Bodeau, D. J., & Fedorowicz, J. (2012) · Administration & Society · doi:10.1177/0095399712445874 · Cited by 26
“It is also worth mentioning sensemaking processes must sometimes precede the organizing processes – different levels of articulation and other issues can be mistaken for each other and until they are correctly identified, the problems cannot be resolved (Comfort 2007).”
BackgroundPeerbolte, S. L., & Collins, M. L. (2012) · Disasters · doi:10.1111/j.1467-7717.2012.01291.x · Cited by 26
“Comfort (2007) stated that cognitive critical thinking is the most important aspect of the practice of emergency management, and is an area that deserves further study in the field of emergency management.”
BackgroundLi, L., Ding, Y., Yuan, J., Ji, W., Zhao, J., & Shen, L. (2022) · Journal of Management in Engineering · doi:10.1061/(asce)me.1943-5479.0001080 · Cited by 25
“…evolution of interorganizational 105 response network structures and investigating high-performance network structures (Abbasi and Kapucu 106 2012; Comfort 2007; Nowell et al. 2018); and (3) investigating the network performance via network 107 measures and exploring factors that influence…”
BackgroundInfluentialComfort, L. K., Yeo, J., & Scheinert, S. R. (2018) · The American Review of Public Administration · doi:10.1177/0275074018783020 · Cited by 28
Self-citationThe role of translators and interpreters in cascading crises and disasters
Alexander, D. E., & Pescaroli, G. (2019) · Disaster Prevention and Management An International Journal · doi:10.1108/dpm-12-2018-0382 · Cited by 31
Metadata
- Authors
- Comfort, L. K.
- Affiliations
- University of Pittsburgh (US)
- Corresponding author
- Comfort, Louise K.
- ORCID
- Comfort, Louise K.
- Venue
- Public Administration Review
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2007-12
- Volume
- 67
- Issue
- s1
- Pages
- 189-197
- ISSN
- 0033-3352 (ISSN-L)
- 1540-6210
- OpenAlex
- W2089773578
- Cited by
- 940
- References
- 18
- Citations by year
- 2026: 116 · 2025: 82 · 2024: 66 · 2023: 95 · 2022: 75 · 2021: 71 · 2020: 69 · 2019: 47 · 2018: 37 · 2017: 41 · 2016: 52 · 2015: 38 · 2014: 38 · 2013: 37 · 2012: 28
- FWCI
- 35.92
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Public Administration Review (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Disaster Management and Resilience
- Social Sciences › Communication › Public Relations and Crisis Communication
- Social Sciences › Safety Research › Safety and Risk Management
- Keywords
- crisis management, emergency management, cognition, Hurricane Katrina, complex adaptive systems, interorganizational systems, risk identification, risk communication, coordination, control, self-organization, community response, extreme events
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