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Crisis Management in Hindsight: Cognition, Communication, Coordination, and Control
Abstract
This article argues that cognition is central to performance in emergency management. Cognition is defined as the capacity to recognize the degree of emerging risk to which a community is exposed and to act on that information. Using the case of Hurricane Katrina to illustrate the collapse of the standard model of emergency management without a clear focus on the role of cognition, the author reframes the concept of intergovernmental crisis management as a complex, adaptive system. That is, the system needs to adjust and adapt its performance to fit the demands of an ever‐changing physical, engineered, and social environment. The terms of cognition, communication, coordination, and control are redefined in ways that fit the reality of practice in extreme events. A reframed intergovernmental crisis management system may be conceived as a dynamic interorganizational system that is characterized by four primary decision points: (1) detection of risk, (2) recognition and interpretation of risk for the immediate context, (3) communication of risk to multiple organizations in a wider region, and (4) self‐organization and mobilization of a collective, community response system to reduce risk and respond to danger.
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“Cognition is the ability to recognise an emerging risk and understand its nature, size and potential impact across different aspects of society and everyday life, policy arenas and their interaction based on processing detected information (Comfort, 2007) representing the first line of defence in protecting human security.”
From Risk Governance, State Capacity, and Critical Human Security: Evolution of Risk Governance in Response to Systemic Risk in the UK and South Korea (2025) · cites this paper as Comfort, 2007
In the citing paper
“Kwon et al, (2023), drawing on Comfort (2007) and Farazmand (2007) have highlighted three key components of state capacity for crisis governance -cognition, co-ordination, and capacity to implement (see Figure 1).”
From Risk Governance, State Capacity, and Critical Human Security: Evolution of Risk Governance in Response to Systemic Risk in the UK and South Korea (2025) · cites this paper as Comfort (2007)
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“In focusing on coordination rather than collaboration, we follow scholars who use coordination when examining crises response in regional settings (Christensen et al., 2015; Comfort, 2007; Tierney, 1985) rather than the longterm integrated relationship that collaboration entails (Thomson & Perry, 2006).”
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“The particular focus of this study is on the IMT’s information management activities which have been shown to be one of the key areas of multidisciplinary emergency operations (Comfort, 2007).”
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“…the clear recognition of the severity of the threat and its likely consequences, decision-makers of emergency management agencies at federal, state, county, and municipal governments failed to communicate the urgency of the danger to their agencies, resulting in a delayed response (Comfort, 2007).”
BackgroundInfluentialCoping with Katrina: Assessing Crisis Management Behaviours in the Big One
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“…situation conditions increase the general level of complexity and uncertainty associated with succession (Chen & Hambrick, 2012), because such unstable situations often cannot be dealt with by traditional management strategies (Comfort, 2007) and thus require particularly able leadership.”
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“Source: author’s study based on the research conducted and (Tilebein, 2006; Palmberg, 2009; Comfort, 2007).”
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“During the last decades public policy and Emergency Management theorists have increasingly recognised the need for a different approach, rather than traditional hierarchical framework used in normal operating conditions (Comfort, 2007).”
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“To facilitate shared yet distributed awareness of the IMT operations, the COP served as a joint platform or a trading zone where incident information is exchanged (Baber et al. 2013; Comfort 2007; Wolbers and Boersma 2013).”
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“management shows that people often look for someone to blame and desire to know how to stay safe (Comfort, 2007).”
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“These resources include material resources, information management systems, and human capital (Barasa et al., 2018), cognitive skills (Comfort, 2007), and social capital and collaboration (Weber et al., 2007).”
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“Therefore, public agencies should be and are willing to collaborate with potential partners in the emergency management process (Comfort, 2007; Kapucu, 2008; Moynihan, 2009; Yang, 2010; Wu et al., 2015).”
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“…service delivery (Provan & Milward, 2001), complement traditional hierarchical structures to facilitate emergency communication and coordination (Comfort, 2007; Kapucu, 2006), solve collective action dilemmas in regional economic development (Lee et al., 2012), and address conflicts of…”
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“In an emergency scenario, coordination of action is required among the different agencies and jurisdictions participating in the disaster operations (Comfort 2007).”
BackgroundMafimisebi, O. P., Obembe, D., & Ogunsade, A. I. (2023) · Journal of General Management · doi:10.1177/03063070231159568 · Cited by 15
“…and normal accident (Akgun and Keskin, 2014; Alink et al., 2001; Boin and Lagadec, 2000; Boin and Van Eeten, 2013; Carmeli and Schaubroeck, 2008; Comfort, 2007; Linnenluecke, 2017; Ma fi misebi, 2018; Ma fi misebi and Nkwunonwo, 2015; Ma fi misebi and Thorne, 2017a; Pearson and Sommer, 2011;…”
InfluentialFuller, R. P., Rice, R. E., & Pyle, A. S. (2023) · American Behavioral Scientist · doi:10.1177/00027642231155380 · Cited by 15
“The first is rebound-oriented, planning ahead to minimize crisis impacts and to regain normalcy and organizational stability (Barbour et al., 2020; Comfort, 2007).”
Fusi, F., Jung, H., & Welch, E. W. (2023) · Public Management Review · doi:10.1080/14719037.2023.2250362 · Cited by 15
“More broadly, adaption to extreme events – e.g. extreme weather events, pandemics and social protests – and crisis management are at the forefront of a rapidly expanding scholarship (Bullock, Greer, and O’Toole 2019; Comfort 2007; Zhang, Welch, and Miao 2018).”
Managing commercial actors in strategic networks in emergency preparedness
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The expertise of public officials and collaborative disaster management
Lee, D. W. (2020) · International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction · doi:10.1016/j.ijdrr.2020.101711 · Cited by 16
Compounding Disasters and Ethical Leadership: Case Studies from Louisiana and Texas
Knox, C. C., Goodman, D., Entress, R. M., & Tyler, J. (2022) · Public Integrity · doi:10.1080/10999922.2022.2026664 · Cited by 14
“Disasters are complex and dynamic events that test even the most ethical leaders at all levels of government (Boin et al., 2016; Comfort, 2007; Kapucu et al., 2011; Van Wart, 2014; Van Wart & Kapucu, 2011; Waugh & Streib, 2006).”
Dimitrijevska‐Markoski, T., & Nukpezah, J. A. (2023) · Administration & Society · doi:10.1177/00953997221147243 · Cited by 14
“Effective emergency and crisis management have generally relied on the three C’s— communication, coordination and control (Comfort, 2007), calm and strong leadership, and pragmatic decision-making (Van Wart & Kapucu, 2011).”
BackgroundInfluentialDesmidt, S., & Meyfroodt, K. (2023) · Public Management Review · doi:10.1080/14719037.2023.2165699 · Cited by 15
Bera, M. K. (2023) · Natural Hazards Research · doi:10.1016/j.nhres.2023.06.004 · Cited by 16
Xiang, T., & Chen, Y. (2023) · Public Administration Review · doi:10.1111/puar.13752 · Cited by 14
“Drawing from Comfort ’ s (2007) and Drabek and McEn-tire ’ s (2002) conceptualization, we define coordination as the process of aligning one organization ’ s actions with others ’ to achieve a shared goal.”
Elvegård, R., & Andreassen, N. (2023) · Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management · doi:10.1111/1468-5973.12517 · Cited by 24
Decentralisation, intergovernmental coordination, and response to extreme events in Southeast Asia
Shair‐Rosenfield, S. (2024) · Regional Studies · doi:10.1080/00343404.2024.2319716 · Cited by 14
“Comfort (2007) highlights coordination – aligning resources, tasks and time to achieve a shared goal – as one of four critical aspects of emergency management.”
Ma, L., Huang, D., Jiang, X., Yang, L., Zhang, M., & Lin, Y. (2025) · Environment Development and Sustainability · doi:10.1007/s10668-025-06376-0 · Cited by 14
Hu, Q., Huang, K., & Chen, B. (2019) · Human Services Organizations Management Leadership & Governance · doi:10.1080/23303131.2019.1696908 · Cited by 14
“Information communication and sharing is essential for building and sustaining interorganizational collaboration (Comfort, 2007; Hu & Kapucu, 2014; Romzek et al., 2012).”
BackgroundCommand and Control: Challenging Fallacies of the ‘Military Model’ in Research and Practice
Burke, R. (2018) · International Journal of Mass Emergencies & Disasters · doi:10.1177/028072701803600204 · Cited by 14
“Comfort (2007) discussed Coast Guard helicopters searching for survivors as a situation-based departure from their standard operating procedures during the Hurricane Katrina response effort.”
BackgroundOrganizational and Institutional Crisis Management
Kuipers, S., & Wolbers, J. (2021) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.013.1611 · Cited by 21
A diagnostic for evaluating collaborative responses to compound emergencies
Bodin, Ö., Nohrstedt, D., & Orach, K. (2022) · Progress in Disaster Science · doi:10.1016/j.pdisas.2022.100251 · Cited by 13
Mao, Y. (2023) · Health Policy and Planning · doi:10.1093/heapol/czad007 · Cited by 13
Gautier, L., Ruggiero, E. D., Jackson, C., Bentayeb, N., Blain, M.-J., Chowdhury, F., Gueye, S. T. M., Haydary, M., Maillet, L., Mahmoudi, L., et al. (2023) · Health Research Policy and Systems · doi:10.1186/s12961-023-00991-x · Cited by 13
Tangney, P., Star, C., Sutton, Z., & Clarke, B. (2023) · International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction · doi:10.1016/j.ijdrr.2023.103983 · Cited by 13
Hu, Q., An, S., Kapucu, N., Sellnow, T. L., Yüksel, M., Freihaut, R., & Dey, P. K. (2024) · Disasters · doi:10.1111/disa.12628 · Cited by 13
How to organize in turbulence: arrangements and pathways for robust governance
Micacchi, M., Cucciniello, M., Trivellato, B., Cristofoli, D., Turrini, A., Valotti, G., & Nasi, G. (2025) · Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory · doi:10.1093/jopart/muae027 · Cited by 19
Shen, S., Chang, R. H., Kim, K., & Julian, M. (2022) · Natural Hazards · doi:10.1007/s11069-022-05449-x · Cited by 13
“2014; Comfort 2007; Dynes 1994).”
Metadata
- Authors
- Comfort, L. K.
- Affiliations
- University of Pittsburgh (US)
- Corresponding author
- Comfort, Louise K.
- ORCID
- Comfort, Louise K.
- Venue
- Public Administration Review
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2007-12
- Volume
- 67
- Issue
- s1
- Pages
- 189-197
- ISSN
- 0033-3352 (ISSN-L)
- 1540-6210
- OpenAlex
- W2089773578
- Cited by
- 940
- References
- 18
- Citations by year
- 2026: 116 · 2025: 82 · 2024: 66 · 2023: 95 · 2022: 75 · 2021: 71 · 2020: 69 · 2019: 47 · 2018: 37 · 2017: 41 · 2016: 52 · 2015: 38 · 2014: 38 · 2013: 37 · 2012: 28
- FWCI
- 35.92
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Public Administration Review (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Disaster Management and Resilience
- Social Sciences › Communication › Public Relations and Crisis Communication
- Social Sciences › Safety Research › Safety and Risk Management
- Keywords
- crisis management, emergency management, cognition, Hurricane Katrina, complex adaptive systems, interorganizational systems, risk identification, risk communication, coordination, control, self-organization, community response, extreme events
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