Relating Test-Taking Attitudes and Skills and Stereotype Threat Effects to the Racial Gap in Cognitive Ability Test Performance
Abstract
This research extended past studies on race effects and stereotype threat (ST) effects outside the academic domain, as well as exploring the mediating role of test-related cognition, motivation, and emotionality in the Black-White cognitive ability test performance differences. One hundred seventy-two undergraduates took a simulated personnel selection test and responded to measures of attitudinal and test-taking skills prior to and after the test. Half of the participants were told that the test provided the hypothetical employer diagnostic information about their reasoning abilities and limitations; they were also asked to report their racial status prior to taking the test. Significant race differences favoring Whites were found for mathematical and logical performance, holding ability constant. A metacognitive strategy, regulation of cognition, partially mediated race effects on mathematical and verbal performance. Contrary to previous findings, no traditional significant ST effects were found; however, a 3-way interaction revealed that proficiency in test-taking strategies mitigated the Black-White mathematical score gap to a greater extent for those in the ST condition.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Regulation of cognition has been found to mediate the relationship between ethnicity and performance.
“as has regulation of cognition, defined as the way people plan, implement strategies, selfevaluate and error check (Nguyen et al., 2003).”
From Factors Related to Mean Score Group Differences on Cognitive Ability Tests: A Systematic Review (2025) · cites this paper as Nguyen et al., 2003
Cites
Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.51.6.1173 · Cited by 91,542 · see citing works
Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans.
Steele, C. M., & Aronson, J. (1995) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.69.5.797 · Cited by 8,449 · see citing works
Motivational and self-regulated learning components of classroom academic performance.
Pintrich, P. R., & De Groot, E. V. (1990) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.82.1.33 · Cited by 8,332 · see citing works
Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans.
Steele, C. M., & Aronson, J. (1995) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.69.5.797 · Cited by 8,181 · see citing works
Self-discrepancy: A theory relating self and affect.
Higgins, E. T. (1987) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.94.3.319 · Cited by 7,219 · see citing works
A threat in the air: How stereotypes shape intellectual identity and performance
Steele, C. M. (1997) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.52.6.613 · Cited by 6,770 · see citing works
(1998) · Cited by 2,713 · see citing works
Finn, J. D. (1989) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.2307/1170412 · Cited by 2,702 · see citing works
Process Analysis: Estimating Mediation in Treatment Evaluations
Judd, C. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1981) · Evaluation Review · doi:10.1177/0193841x8100500502 · Cited by 2,442 · see citing works
Kanfer, R., & Ackerman, P. L. (1989) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.74.4.657 · Cited by 2,084 · see citing works
Baumeister, R. F. (1984) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.46.3.610 · Cited by 1,665 · see citing works
Ideal versus ought predilections for approach and avoidance distinct self-regulatory systems.
Higgins, E. T., Roney, C. J. R., Crowe, E., & Hymes, C. (1994) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.66.2.276 · Cited by 970 · see citing works
Stress, anxiety, and cognitive interference: Reactions to tests.
Sarason, I. G. (1984) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.46.4.929 · Cited by 959 · see citing works
Minority status and schooling: a comparative study of immigrant and involuntary minorities
(1992) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.29-4018 · Cited by 864 · see citing works
Performance incentives and means: How regulatory focus influences goal attainment.
Shah, J. Y., Higgins, T. E., & Friedman, R. (1998) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.74.2.285 · Cited by 822 · see citing works
Stereotype threat effects on Black and White athletic performance
Stone, J., Lynch, C. I., Sjomeling, M., & Darley, J. M. (1999) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.77.6.1213 · Cited by 712 · see citing works
Chen, G., Gully, S. M., Whiteman, J.-A., & Kilcullen, R. N. (2000) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.85.6.835 · Cited by 601 · see citing works
The Effects of Stereotype Threat and Double-Minority Status on the Test Performance of Latino Women
Gonzales, P. M., Blanton, H., & Williams, K. J. (2002) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167202288010 · Cited by 470 · see citing works
Dark ghetto: dilemmas of social power
Clark, K. B. (1989) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 452 · see citing works
Sackett, P. R., Schmitt, N., Ellingson, J. E., & Kabin, M. B. (2001) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.56.4.302 · Cited by 387 · see citing works
ROTH, P. L., BEVIER, C. A., BOBKO, P., SWITZER, F. S., & TYLER, P. (2001) · Personnel Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.2001.tb00094.x · Cited by 325 · see citing works
MOTIVATIONAL COMPONENTS OF TEST TAKING
ARVEY, R. D., STRICKLAND, W., DRAUDEN, G., & MARTIN, C. (1990) · Personnel Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.1990.tb00679.x · Cited by 324 · see citing works
Millman, J., Bishop, C. H., & Ebel, R. L. (1965) · Educational and Psychological Measurement · doi:10.1177/001316446502500304 · Cited by 317 · see citing works
Chan, D., Schmitt, N., DeShon, R. P., Clause, C. S., & Delbridge, K. (1997) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.82.2.300 · Cited by 273 · see citing works
Leyens, J.-P., Désert, M., Croizet, J.-C., & Darcis, C. (2000) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167200262002 · Cited by 243 · see citing works
(1998) · Cited by 238 · see citing works
Activating stereotypes undermines task performance expectations
Stangor, C., Carr, C., & Kiang, L. (1998) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.75.5.1191 · Cited by 221 · see citing works
REM sleep facilitation of adaptive waking behavior: A review of the literature.
McGrath, M. J., & Cohen, D. B. (1978) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.85.1.24 · Cited by 217 · see citing works
The Effect of Metacognitive Knowledge on Local and Global Monitoring
Schraw, G. J. (1994) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1006/ceps.1994.1013 · Cited by 212 · see citing works
Stereotyping and its threat are real.
Steele, C. M. (1998) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.53.6.680 · Cited by 190 · see citing works
Wylie, F. W. (1991) · Public Relations Review · doi:10.1016/0363-8111(91)90058-s · Cited by 160 · see citing works
Understanding pretest and posttest reactions to cognitive ability and personality tests.
Chan, D. K., Schmitt, N., Sacco, J. M., & DeShon, R. P. (1998) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.83.3.471 · Cited by 152 · see citing works
Differential validity of employment tests by race: A comprehensive review and analysis.
Hunter, J. E., Schmidt, F., & Hunter, R. F. (1979) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.86.4.721 · Cited by 150 · see citing works
An Examination of Test-Wiseness In the Cognitive Test Domain
Sarnacki, R. E. (1979) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/00346543049002252 · Cited by 148 · see citing works
Development and examination of an expectancy-based measure of test-taking motivation.
Sanchez, R. J., Truxillo, D. M., & Bauer, T. N. (2000) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.85.5.739 · Cited by 126 · see citing works
APPLICANT WITHDRAWAL: THE ROLE OF TEST‐TAKING ATTITUDES AND RACIAL DIFFERENCES
Schmit, M. J., & Ryan, A. M. (1997) · Personnel Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.1997.tb01485.x · Cited by 123 · see citing works
Self-citationHollandsworth, J. G., Glazeski, R. C., Kirkland, K., Jones, G. E., & Norman, L. R. V. (1979) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/bf01172603 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
Development of the Domain Identification Measure: A Tool for Investigating Stereotype Threat Effects
Smith, J. L., & White, P. H. (2001) · Educational and Psychological Measurement · doi:10.1177/00131640121971635 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
Bartlett, C. J., Bobko, P., Mosier, S., & HANNAN, R. (1978) · Personnel Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.1978.tb00442.x · Cited by 101 · see citing works
Effective test taking: Skills-acquisition versus anxiety-reduction techniques.
Kirkland, K., & Hollandsworth, J. G. (1980) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.48.4.431 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Lautenschlager, G. J., & Mendoza, J. L. (1986) · Applied Psychological Measurement · doi:10.1177/014662168601000202 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
The Effect of Generalized Metacognitive Knowledge on Test Performance and Confidence Judgments
Schraw, G. J. (1996) · The Journal of Experimental Education · doi:10.1080/00220973.1997.9943788 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Coaching for the SAT: A Summary of the Summaries and an Update
Powers, D. E. (1993) · Educational Measurement Issues and Practice · doi:10.1111/j.1745-3992.1993.tb00530.x · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Explaining the Black-White Test Score Gap: The Role of Test Perceptions
Ryan, A. M. (2001) · Human Performance · doi:10.1207/s15327043hup1401_04 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Self-citationWhen dissonance is reduced: The timing of self-justificatory attitude change.
Goethals, G. R., & Cooper, J. (1975) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.32.2.361 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Pike, L. W. (1978) · ETS Research Bulletin Series · doi:10.1002/j.2333-8504.1978.tb01149.x · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Deffenbacher, J. L., Deitz, S. R., & Hazaleus, S. L. (1981) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/bf01172532 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
2 of the 49 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Nguyen, H.-H. D., & Ryan, A. M. (2008) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0012702 · Cited by 845 · see citing works
Self-citationStereotype threat among schoolgirls in quasi-ordinary classroom circumstances.
Huguet, P., & Régner, I. (2007) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.99.3.545 · Cited by 353 · see citing works
“In line with this argument, Rosenthal and Crisp (2006) demonstrated that interventions designed to reduce separation and intergroup boundaries between the two genders undermine stereotype threat in women.”
BackgroundMcCarthy, J. M., Bauer, T. N., Truxillo, D. M., Anderson, N. R., Costa, A. C., & Ahmed, S. M. (2017) · Journal of Management · doi:10.1177/0149206316681846 · Cited by 258 · see citing works
Consequences of organizational justice expectations in a selection system.
Bell, B. S., Wiechmann, D., & Ryan, A. M. (2006) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.91.2.455 · Cited by 153 · see citing works
Self-citationDisabling the able: stereotype threat and women's work performance
Bergeron, D. M., Block, C. J., & Echtenkamp, A. (2006) · Human Performance · doi:10.1207/s15327043hup1902_3 · Cited by 137 · see citing works
Stereotype Threat and Group Differences in Test Performance: A Question of Measurement Invariance.
Wicherts, J. M., Dolan, C. V., & Hessen, D. J. (2005) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.89.5.696 · Cited by 126 · see citing works
“Similar to Study 1 above, stereotype threat was manipulated by both an ethnicity prime and by test diagnosticity (Nguyen et al., 2003).”
BackgroundResultChan, D. K., & Schmitt, N. (2004) · International Journal of Selection and Assessment · doi:10.1111/j.0965-075x.2004.00260.x · Cited by 125 · see citing works
Shewach, O. R., Sackett, P. R., & Quint, S. (2019) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/apl0000420 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Cullen, M. J., Waters, S. D., & Sackett, P. R. (2006) · Human Performance · doi:10.1207/s15327043hup1904_6 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Is stereotype threat a useful construct for organizational psychology research and practice?
Kalokerinos, E. K., von Hippel, C., & Zacher, H. (2014) · Industrial and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1111/iops.12167 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Ployhart, R. E., & Harold, C. M. (2004) · International Journal of Selection and Assessment · doi:10.1111/j.0965-075x.2004.00266.x · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Stereotype Threat: A Meta-Analysis Comparing African Americans to Hispanic Americans1
Nadler, J. T., & Clark, M. H. (2011) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2011.00739.x · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Chung, B. G., Ehrhart, M. G., Ehrhart, K. H., Hattrup, K., & Solamon, J. M. (2009) · Group & Organization Management · doi:10.1177/1059601109354839 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
“Although past research (Mayer & Hanges, 2003; Nguyen et al., 2003; Ployhart et al., 2003) has tried to simulate a work setting using student samples and has called for a need to test this concept in a real employment setting, we could find no research that has attempted to respond to this call by…”
InfluentialThe Interaction of Neuroticism and Gender and Its Impact on Self-Efficacy and Performance
Schmitt, N. (2007) · Human Performance · doi:10.1080/08959280701522197 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
“However, stereotype threat is thought to be anxiety provoking (Nguyen et al., 2003).”
BackgroundA Review of the Stereotype Threat Literature and Its Application in a Neurological Population
Kit, K. A., Tuokko, H. A., & Mateer, C. A. (2008) · Neuropsychology Review · doi:10.1007/s11065-008-9059-9 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
“…test as culturally biased (Blascovich et al. 2001; Major et al. 1998), or asking participants to indicate their race prior to completing an evaluative task (Davis et al. 2006; Marx and Goff 2005; McFarland et al. 2003; Nguyen et al. 2003; Sawyer and Hollis-Sawyer 2005; Steele and Aronson 1995).”
BackgroundApplicant reactions to organizations and selection systems.
Truxillo, D. M., & Bauer, T. N. (2011) · APA handbook of industrial and organizational psychology, Vol 2: Selecting and developing members for the organization. · doi:10.1037/12170-012 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Implicit Outgroup Favoritism and Intergroup Judgment: The Moderating Role of Stereotypic Context
Ashburn‐Nardo, L., & Johnson, N. J. (2008) · Social Justice Research · doi:10.1007/s11211-008-0078-8 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Tine, M. T., & Gotlieb, R. J. M. (2013) · Social Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s11218-013-9224-8 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
“…when they are not made aware Gender-, race-, and income-based stereotype threat of these stereotypes (e.g., Steele and Aronson 1995; Brown and Day 2006; Gonzales et al. 2002; McFarland et al. 2003; Nguyen et al. 2003; Ployhart et al. 2003; Sawyer and Hollis-Sawyer 2005; Schmader and Johns 2003).”
Kit, K. A., Mateer, C. A., Tuokko, H. A., & Spencer‐Rodgers, J. (2013) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617713001264 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
VanLandingham, H. B., Ellison, R. L., Laique, A., Cladek, A., Khan, H. M., Gonzalez, C., & Dunn, M. R. (2021) · The Clinical Neuropsychologist · doi:10.1080/13854046.2021.1947388 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“Ultimately, this limitation may lead to a misrepresentation of objective cognitive performance, as evidenced by differences in test performances and cognitive ability due to negative sequelae related to the impact of stereotype threat (Nguyen et al., 2003).”
BackgroundGrand, J. A., Ryan, A. M., Schmitt, N., & Hmurovic, J. (2010) · Human Performance · doi:10.1080/08959285.2010.518184 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Self-citationWicherts, J. M., & Scholten, A. Z. (2009) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2009.09.008 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“Nguyen, O'Neal, and Ryan (2003) conducted an experiment to study the lowering effects of stereotype threat on the Cognitive Ability Test (CAT) performance of a group of African American undergraduates.”
BackgroundA naturalistic study of stereotype threat in young female chess players
Rothgerber, H., & Wolsiefer, K. (2013) · Group Processes & Intergroup Relations · doi:10.1177/1368430213490212 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
McLarty, B. D., & Whitman, D. S. (2015) · Journal of Business and Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10869-015-9405-x · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Swab, R. G., Javadian, G., Gupta, V. K., & Pierce, C. A. (2021) · Group & Organization Management · doi:10.1177/10596011211016989 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Gayles, J. I. (2006) · Journal of African American Studies · doi:10.1007/s12111-006-1010-7 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“Although much of the research on stereotype threat continues to focus primarily on race and racial differences in performance (Aronson, Carrie & Good, 2002; Blascovich, et al., 2001; McKay et al., 2003; Nguyen, O'Neal & Ryan, 2003 ) a growing body of research pursues an investigation of the interaction between race an…”
BackgroundAn Investigation of Stereotype Threat in Employment Tests<sup>1</sup>
Kirnan, J. P., Alfieri, J. A., Bragger, J. D., & Harris, R. S. (2009) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2008.00442.x · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“The effects of stereotype threat might slightly increase these effects for some individuals over others, but according to our research and that of other researchers, the effects are not strong (Mayer & Hanges, 2003; Nguyen et al., 2003; Ployhart et al., 2003; Sackett, 2003).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialExamining the effects of stereotype threat on test-taking behaviors
Scherbaum, C. A., Blanshetyn, V., Marshall-Wolp, E., McCue, E., & Strauss, R. (2011) · Social Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s11218-011-9154-2 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Publication bias and stereotype threat research: A reply to Zigerell.
Ryan, A. M., & Nguyen, H.-H. D. (2017) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/apl0000242 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Self-citationEthnic Bias and Fairness in Personnel Selection: Evidence and Consequences
Evers, A., Nijenhuis, J. T., & der Flier, H. V. (2017) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781405164221.ch14 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Applying Recommendations from the Literature on Stereotype Threat: Two Field Studies
Gillespie, J. Z., Converse, P. D., & Kriska, S. D. (2010) · Journal of Business and Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10869-010-9178-1 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Stereotype threat in workplace assessments.
Ryan, A. M., & Sackett, P. R. (2013) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/14047-036 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Self-citationAre Speeded Tests Unfair? Modeling the Impact of Time Limits on the Gender Gap in Mathematics
Stoevenbelt, A. H., Wicherts, J. M., Flore, P. C., Phillips, L. A. T., Pietschnig, J., Verschuère, B., Voracek, M., & Schwabe, I. (2022) · Educational and Psychological Measurement · doi:10.1177/00131644221111076 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“disadvantage for women (Nguyen et al., 2003; Quinn & Spencer, 2001): We hypothesize that women attempt fewer test items (i.”
BackgroundPérez‐Garín, D., Bustillos, A., & Molero, F. J. (2017) · International Journal of Social Psychology Revista de Psicología Social · doi:10.1080/02134748.2017.1291746 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Stereotype threat in India: Gender and leadership choices
Prasad, A. (2011) · Journal of Psychological Issues in Organizational Culture · doi:10.1002/jpoc.20075 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
The Effect of Stereotype Threat on the Interview Performance of Women
Shantz, A. D. (2017) · Advancing Women in Leadership Journal · doi:10.21423/awlj-v32.a91 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Ryan, A. M., & Powers, C. L. (2012) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199732579.013.0035 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Self-citationThe uniformity of stereotype threat: Analyzing the moderating effects of premeasured performance
Stoevenbelt, A. H., Flore, P. C., Schwabe, I., & Wicherts, J. M. (2022) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2022.101655 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
McKinney, A. P. (2009) · Journal of Diversity Management (JDM) · doi:10.19030/jdm.v4i4.4967 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Bailey, H., & Anne, A. (2004) · UPT. Syiah Kuala University Library (Syiah Kuala University) · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Situated Identity Performance: Understanding Stereotype Threat as a Social Identity Phenomenon
Quayle, M. (2011) · PsycEXTRA Dataset · doi:10.1037/e513282012-001 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“A general experimental paradigm was developed for the programme of research that, unlike the majority of studies in STB, allowed (almost) true random assignment, but with the proviso that the stereotypes invoked were relatively innocuous compared to the powerful and inescapable stereotypes invoked in most stereotype r…”
On the Construct Validity of Stereotype Threat Measures: Some Possible Boundary Conditions
Marsden, A. J. (2009) · IRL - University of Missouri, St. Louis (University of Missouri–St. Louis) · Cited by 1 · see citing works
A Mediated-Moderation Model of Stereotype Threat and Performance Pressure Effects
Johnson, J. (2012) · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Factors Related to Mean Score Group Differences on Cognitive Ability Tests: A Systematic Review
Cuppello, S., Zibarras, L. D., & Corr, P. J. (2025) · Trends in Psychology · doi:10.1007/s43076-025-00504-5
Essack, Z. (2008) · ResearchSpace (University of KwaZulu-Natal)
A phenomenological study of top performing 12th grade African-American high school students
Galbraith, C. T. (2010) · California State University ScholarWorks (system-wide DSpace)
Racial Stereotype Threat: A Critical Race Perspective
McCloud, D. (2016) · doi:10.30707/etd2016.mccloud.d
The Colonial Archive, Stereotypes, and the Practice of Psychological Assessment
Macdonald, H. (2016) · Palgrave Macmillan US eBooks · doi:10.1057/978-1-349-95038-6_4
Fields, C. L. (2013) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-5690-2_654
Do You Take a Test the Same Way I Do? Addressing Test-Taking in Educational Psychology
Papanastasiou, E. C. (2019) · American Educational Research Association Annual Meeting (AERA) · doi:10.3102/1430959
Stereotype threat in India: Gender and leadership choices
Prasad, A. (2007) · doi:10.12794/metadc5128
Ryan, A. M. (2023) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/979-8-88730-325-320251013
Self-citationThe Impact of Recruitment and Selection Choices on Workforce Diversity
Ryan, A. M., & Powers, C. L. (2026) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780197809013.003.0036
Self-citationIp, K. (2011) · Scholarship at UWindsor (University of Windsor)
The impact of inter-group conflict on stereotype threat or lift.
Seunanden, T. C. (2011)
- Authors
- Nguyen, H.-H. D., O'Neal, A., & Ryan, A. M.
- Affiliations
- Michigan State University (US)
- ORCID
- Ryan, Ann Marie
- Venue
- Human Performance
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2003-07
- Volume
- 16
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 261-293
- ISSN
- 0895-9285 (ISSN-L)
- 1532-7043
- OpenAlex
- W1975240721
- Cited by
- 56
- References
- 49
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 1 · 2023: 1 · 2022: 3 · 2021: 2 · 2019: 2 · 2017: 4 · 2016: 3 · 2015: 1 · 2014: 1 · 2013: 5 · 2012: 3
- FWCI
- 10.43
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Human Performance (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Education, Achievement, and Giftedness
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Keywords
- stereotype threat, black-white disparities, cognitive ability tests, test-taking skills, metacognitive strategies, metacognitive regulation, test-taking motivation, personnel selection tests, mathematics achievement, verbal performance
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
