Cited by 1,315Survey Methodology and NonresponseSurvey Sampling and Estimation TechniquesCensus and Population Estimation

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Selection Bias in Web Surveys

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Bethlehem, Jelke·2010·International Statistical Review

DOI 10.1111/j.1751-5823.2010.00112.x

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Abstract

Summary: At first sight, web surveys seem to be an interesting and attractive means of data collection. They provide simple, cheap, and fast access to a large group of potential respondents. However, web surveys are not without methodological problems. Specific groups in the populations are under‐represented because they have less access to Internet. Furthermore, recruitment of respondents is often based on self‐selection. Both under‐coverage and self‐selection may lead to biased estimates. This paper describes these methodological problems. It also explores the effect of various correction techniques (adjustment weighting and use of reference surveys). This all leads to the question whether properly design web surveys can be used for data collection. The paper attempts to answer this question. It concludes that under‐coverage problems may solve itself in the future, but that self‐selection leads to unreliable survey outcomes.

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“Therefore, to overcome this a speci ﬁ c demographic characteristic (Generation Z) is targeted in the sample population (Bethlehem 2010).”
Method
Apple Values—What Determines the Decision to Buy Apples?
Gustavsen, G. W., & Milford, A. B. (2024) · Horticulturae · doi:10.3390/horticulturae10090994 · Cited by 3
Parties abroad and migrants' representation in the country of origin
Gherghina, S., & Soare, S. C. (2025) · International Migration · doi:10.1111/imig.70008 · Cited by 3
“The disadvantages of online data collection include self-selection bias, access of respondents to devices and the Internet, survey fraud and the absence of an interviewer to explain unclear issues (Bethlehem, 2010; Sue & Ritter, 2012).”
“We Deserve the Respect. Without Us, There Would Be No Games”: Examining the Experiences of Australian Rules Football Umpires
Cleland, J. A., Sharpe, S., & Crozier, A. (2025) · The International Journal of Sport and Society · doi:10.18848/2152-7857/cgp/v16i03/71-91 · Cited by 3
Who Are the Consumers of European Farmers' Markets? A Cross‐Country Analysis
Török, Á., Maró, G., Jámbor, Z., Maró, Z. M., Tocco, B., Balogh, P., & Czine, P. (2025) · Agribusiness · doi:10.1002/agr.22058 · Cited by 3
Examining the Eye Movement Desensitization Reprocessing Flash Technique on Racial Trauma
Hung, Y., Chang, K., Soloski, K. L., & Linville, D. C. (2025) · Journal of Marital and Family Therapy · doi:10.1111/jmft.70032 · Cited by 3
Navigating Nightlife Research: Understanding the Impact of Recruitment Methods on Participants’ Reported Characteristics
Button, K., Taylor, N., Coomber, K., de Andrade, D., Koukounas, E., & Miller, P. G. (2025) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/08862605251372564 · Cited by 3
Variability and stability of autistic traits in the general population: A systematic comparison between online and in-lab samples
Wu, Q., Hong, Q., Kim, N. Y., Adolphs, R., Paul, L. K., & Charpentier, C. J. (2025) · Personality Neuroscience · doi:10.1017/pen.2025.10001 · Cited by 4
“…comfortable with socialization settings, and exhibit less autistic traits; whereas people who register at online crowdsourcing platforms may have difficulty finding on-site jobs, prefer less in-person social interactions, and show higher autistic traits (Bethlehem, 2010; Difallah et al., 2018).”
The interplay of work values, job satisfaction and intention to stay among millennials in Indonesia
Mayowan, Y., Astuti, E. S., Utami, H. N., & Prasеtya, A. (2025) · Cogent Business & Management · doi:10.1080/23311975.2025.2581345 · Cited by 3
“For questionnaire distribution, online surveys have been widely adopted in research due to advantages such as ease of access, cost-effectiveness and efficiency in reaching large potential populations (Bethlehem, 2010; Yang et al., 2024).”
Immersive tendencies and presence in virtual reality: Spanish adaptation of the ITQ and IPQ, and their relationship with suggestibility and cybersickness
Castro, C., Dinu, A. I., Doncel, P., Sánchez-Barrera, M. B., Muñoz, M. A., Gómez‐Campos, F. M., García-Fernández, P., Tromp, J. G., & Trógolo, M. (2026) · Virtual Reality · doi:10.1007/s10055-025-01301-2 · Cited by 4
“First, participants were recruited via an online sur - vey, which may introduce self-selection bias (Bethlehem 2010 ).”
Knowledge, Use, and Barriers in Dyslipidemia Management: A Cross-Sectional Survey of Clinicians
Mesquita-Lousada, A., Barbosa, A., Silva, J., D’Oria, M., Silva, D. S., Andrade, J. P., Ribeiro, H., & Rocha-Neves, J. P. (2026) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm15072745 · Cited by 3
“Additionally, some healthcare professionals who do not engage with Web 2.0 platforms might have been excluded from the survey, further limiting the generalizability of the findings [49].”
Influential
Assessing the occurrence of the novel zoonotic variegated squirrel bornavirus 1 in captive squirrels in Germany —A prevalence study
Allendorf, V., Rubbenstroth, D., Schlottau, K., Hoffmann, D., Frank, C., Amler, S., Beer, M., Conraths, F. J., & Homeier‐Bachmann, T. (2021) · Zoonoses and Public Health · doi:10.1111/zph.12801 · Cited by 3
“Possible sources of bias in a Web survey are the coverage of Internet use and the sensitivity for self-selection (Bethlehem, 2010).”
Background
Online Research Practice and Integrated Perspectives of Inquiry
Mauceri, S., Faggiano, M. P., & Censi, L. D. (2021) · Advances in knowledge acquisition, transfer, and management book series/Advances in knowledge acquisition, transfer and management book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-7998-8473-6.ch007 · Cited by 3
Characterizing Unusual Spatial Clusters of Male Mental Health Emergencies Occurring During the First National COVID-19 “Lockdown” in the East Midlands Region, UK: A Geospatial Analysis of Ambulance 999 Data
Moore, H. E., Hill, B., Tanser, F. C., Siriwardena, A. N., Gussy, M. G., Cutts, M., & Spaight, R. (2022) · American Journal of Men s Health · doi:10.1177/15579883221097539 · Cited by 3
“…2022 2020; Henssler et al., 2021; O’Connor et al., 2021; Pierce et al., 2020; Rajkumar, 2020; Wang et al., 2021), which are prone to selection bias (Bethlehem, 2010) or service use records, such as visits to mental health specialists, which only represent experiences of individuals who actively…”
Background
Social connections and depressive symptoms among older adults during the initial lockdown period for COVID-19
Solis-López, S. E., Hernández‐Ruiz, V., Amieva, H., & Ávila‐Funes, J. A. (2023) · Salud Mental · doi:10.17711/sm.0185-3325.2023.017 · Cited by 3
“Which also contributes to reduce the selection bias, as described in other publications (Bethlehem, 2010).”
Reliability and validity of a Korean version of the children’s eating behavior questionnaire in anorexia context
Ko, M. M., Lee, S. H., Chang, G. T., & Lee, B. (2023) · Frontiers in Nutrition · doi:10.3389/fnut.2023.1247630 · Cited by 3
[Comprehensive nutrition therapy in hospitals - Wishful thinking or reality? A survey-based cross-sectional study of the nutritional therapy in hospitals of Baden-Württemberg].
Adolph, M., Schweikert, D., Wehner, A., Fritsche, A., Bamberg, M., Tischler, K., & Wessels, B. (2024) · Zeitschrift fur Evidenz, Fortbildung und Qualitat im Gesundheitswesen · doi:10.1016/j.zefq.2024.01.004
An improved habitat suitability index for the great crested newt Triturus cristatus
Seccombe, E., & Salguero‐Gómez, R. (2024) · Herpetological Journal · doi:10.33256/34.2.5567 · Cited by 3
A cross-sectional survey to describe practices associated with retraining and rehoming of former racehorses in Great Britain
Hockenhull, J., Cardwell, J. M., & Verheyen, K. L. P. (2024) · Journal of Equine Rehabilitation · doi:10.1016/j.eqre.2024.100008 · Cited by 3
The Effect of Elite Cues on Policy Attitudes through the Lens of Affective Polarization in Taiwan
Chin, C., & Wang, C. (2024) · Asian Survey · doi:10.1525/as.2024.2121910 · Cited by 3
Improving the reliability of a nonprobability web survey: application to measuring gender pay gap
Huang, Y., & Shlomo, N. (2024) · International Journal of Social Research Methodology · doi:10.1080/13645579.2024.2371238 · Cited by 3
“The development of social media and telecommunication technologies means that web surveys can be launched quickly, distributed in various ways and easily reach a large population (Bethlehem, 2010).”
Influential
Unlocking value-based pricing: the moderating roles of pricing capabilities and contingency factors in B2B markets: an empirical approach
Roll, O., & Geerties, J. L. (2025) · Journal of Revenue and Pricing Management · doi:10.1057/s41272-025-00530-z · Cited by 3
“Additionally, sampling via social networking sites (SNS) increases relevance but may introduce self-selection bias (Bethlehem 2010).”
Random versus self-selected samples of Arkansas anglers: An empirical comparison
Vaske, J. J., Miller, C. A., Feltz, J., & DiCenzo, V. (2025) · North American Journal of Fisheries Management · doi:10.1093/najfmt/vqaf006 · Cited by 3
The psychometric performance of the EQ-5D-5L composite and component items in the U.S. General population and by age group
Pham, M., Craig, B. M., & Rencz, F. (2025) · Quality of Life Research · doi:10.1007/s11136-025-04053-3 · Cited by 4
“First, the use of an online survey may have introduced sampling bias, potentially underrep-resenting individuals with limited internet access or lower digital literacy, thereby affecting the generalizability of the findings [ 47].”
Engagement Dynamics in Online Mental Health Communities: The Role of Trust and Social Support in Young Adults’ Attitudes and Norms
Naga, J. F., Quidato, M., Pascual, M. C. G. P., & Ebardo, R. A. (2025) · SAGE Open · doi:10.1177/21582440251376147 · Cited by 4
“Additionally, using Google Forms disseminated through social media carries the potential for self-selection bias, where participants who are already interested or involved in mental health topics are more likely to respond (Bethlehem, 2010).”
Вклад характеристик участников массовых открытых онлайн-курсов (МООК) в формирование уровня удовлетворенности обучением
Semenova, T., & Вилкова, К. (2019) · Monitoring obŝestvennogo mneniâ: èkonomičeskie i socialʹnye peremeny · doi:10.14515/monitoring.2019.4.13 · Cited by 3
Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the Affective Lability Scale-18 in a Community Sample of Pregnant and Postpartum Women
Li, H., Glecia, A., & Balbuena, L. (2021) · Women s Reproductive Health · doi:10.1080/23293691.2021.1976045 · Cited by 3
Study Protocol and Preliminary Results of the Impact of Occupational Health Workers' Activities on Their Health: Nationwide Prospective Internet-Based Survey
Ikegami, K., Yoshimoto, Y., Baba, H., Sekoguchi, S., Ando, H., & Ogami, A. (2022) · JMIR Formative Research · doi:10.2196/35290 · Cited by 3
“Measurement error refers to errors caused by differences in the approach used in responding, even by the same respondent, depending on whether the answers are recorded using other methods (eg, by telephone or interview) or are self-recorded (eg, by the respondent self-completing individually) and whether the answers a…”
Method
STUDENTS’ RECALLED DESIRABILITY OF USING GAME-BASED STUDENT RESPONSE SYSTEMS (GSRSS): a USER EXPERIENCE (UX) PERSPECTIVE
Nieto‐García, M., & Sit, J. (2022) · Marketing Education Review · doi:10.1080/10528008.2022.2117989 · Cited by 3
“First, future research should be mindful of self-selection bias (Bethlehem, 2010) when recruiting eligible participants for a similar project.”
Background
John Henryism and fear of failure in competitive sport: predicting competitive standard and mental well-being
Sivaramakrishnan, H., Spray, C. M., Fletcher, D., & Ntoumanis, N. (2022) · International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1080/1612197x.2022.2139854 · Cited by 4
“As such, this bias, commonly noted in questionnaire research (Bethlehem, 2010), may have in ﬂ uenced the present ﬁ ndings.”
Background
Musculoskeletal physiotherapists reasons for treatment selection and continuous professional development practices in the United Kingdom: A cross-sectional survey
Chesterton, P., & Skidmore, N. (2022) · Physiotherapy Practice and Research · doi:10.3233/ppr-210619 · Cited by 3
“It is possible that the respondents are not representative of the entire target population [42, 43].”
Matematik Öğretmenlerinin Görüşlerine Göre Ortaokul Matematik Öğretiminde Karşılaşılan Sorunların ve Çözüm Önerilerinin İncelenmesi
DURAN, S., Berk, Ş., & Köklü, O. (2022) · Eğitim Bilimleri Dergisi · doi:10.15285/maruaebd.1181564 · Cited by 3
Body image dissatisfaction: A novel predictor of poor quality of life in epilepsy
Alessi, N., Coleman, H., & Rayner, G. (2023) · Epilepsy & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yebeh.2023.109149 · Cited by 3
“Furthermore, while the sample of participants was derived from both clinical and community settings, voluntary participation does increase the possibility of self-selection biases whereby people with concerns about their body image may have been more likely to participate [43,44].”
Background
Correlates of burnout in predoctoral dental students in the United States
Joseph, A., Finkelman, M., Khoynezhad, S., & Bordin, T. B. (2023) · Journal of Dental Education · doi:10.1002/jdd.13230 · Cited by 3
Factors Related to College Major Selection in Communication Sciences and Disorders: Application of the Theory of Planned Behavior
Choo, A. L., Gurevich, N., Dadzie, N., Reidenbach, K., Laxman, M., & Ngo, K. (2023) · Perspectives of the ASHA Special Interest Groups · doi:10.1044/2023_persp-22-00241 · Cited by 3
National survey of user-reported usability of electronic medical record software in ophthalmology in Germany
Fuhrmann, L., & Schargus, M. (2023) · Graefe s Archive for Clinical and Experimental Ophthalmology · doi:10.1007/s00417-023-06139-5 · Cited by 5
“Due to a relatively low 11.8% response rate, there is a risk of self-selection bias [36], which may have led to underre-porting of those who do not feel strongly about their EMR use and extreme response bias of those who do, as these participants may have sought to maximize their influence on the…”
BackgroundInfluential
Intertwined -isms: an exploration of relationships between ageism and sexism in workplace and non-work contexts
Bae, S., & Choi, M. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1138812 · Cited by 6
“Accordingly, self-selection bias cannot be ruled out, as only those who were willing to provide their information through online platforms participated (Bethlehem, 2010).”
Background
Socio-cultural relationship between recreational sea anglers and blue sharks (Prionace glauca) in the United Kingdom
Scotts, G. L., Scales, M. J., Araújo, G., Booth, H. L., & Marley, S. A. (2023) · Marine Policy · doi:10.1016/j.marpol.2023.105831 · Cited by 3
Reflections on Dementia-Related Stigma and Direct Support Seeking by Family Caregivers as Mediating Associations Between Caregiver Stress, Burden, and Well-Being
Schlag, K. E., & Vangelisti, A. L. (2023) · Health Communication · doi:10.1080/10410236.2023.2270248 · Cited by 4
“First, the use of online survey data introduced sampling issues, including risks of sampling bias (Bethlehem, 2010) in that participants gaining access to this study likely did not fully represent the ADRD family caregiver population.”
Allied health professionals’ experiences and views towards improving musculoskeletal services in the UK for patients with musculoskeletal and co-existing mental health conditions: a qualitative study
Tehrany, R., Maki, D., Teixeira, M. J. C., Chumak, T., & Hoerz, C. (2024) · BMC Musculoskeletal Disorders · doi:10.1186/s12891-023-06878-w · Cited by 4
“This refers to the potential for volunteers to have certain pre-determined views ready to convey [60].”
Background
Exploring the operational logistics of implementing isolation protocols at equestrian facilities
Turcotte, G., O’Sullivan, T. L., Spence, K. L., Winder, C. B., & Greer, A. L. (2025) · Preventive Veterinary Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.prevetmed.2025.106592 · Cited by 3

Authors: Bethlehem, J.
Affiliations: Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek (NL)
Corresponding author: Bethlehem, Jelke
Venue: International Statistical Review
Publisher: Wiley
Published: 2010-08
Volume: 78
Issue: 2
Pages: 161-188
ISSN: 0306-7734 (ISSN-L)
1751-5823
DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-5823.2010.00112.x
OpenAlex: W2129332419
Cited by: 1,315
References: 37
Citations by year: 2026: 228 · 2025: 173 · 2024: 151 · 2023: 149 · 2022: 122 · 2021: 144 · 2020: 109 · 2019: 47 · 2018: 38 · 2017: 54 · 2016: 20 · 2015: 32 · 2014: 19 · 2013: 14 · 2012: 6
FWCI: 29.95
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: bronze
doi.org
Licence: onlinelibrary.wiley.com/termsAndConditions#vor (vor)
Locations: International Statistical Review (publishedVersion)
UvA-DARE (University of Amsterdam) (publishedVersion, other-oa)
RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
Topics: Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Survey Methodology and Nonresponse
Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Survey Sampling and Estimation Techniques
Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Census and Population Estimation
Keywords: online surveys, selection bias, undercoverage, self-selection, internet access, survey design, participant recruitment

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Selection Bias in Web Surveys

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