Cited by 739Reliability and Agreement in MeasurementPsychometric Methodologies and TestingStatistical Methods and Bayesian Inference

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THEORY OF GENERALIZABILITY: A LIBERALIZATION OF RELIABILITY THEORY†

Cronbach, Lee J., Rajaratnam, Nageswari, Gleser, Goldine C.·1963·British Journal of Statistical Psychology

DOI 10.1111/j.2044-8317.1963.tb00206.x

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Abstract

“Reliability theory” is reinterpreted as a theory regarding the adequac with which one can generalize from one observation to a universe of observations. If the observation is randomly sampled from the universe—whether or not the universe consists of equivalent observations—the intraclass correlation provides an approximate lower bound to the expected value of the desired coefficient of generalizability.

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Crossref · 10.1111/j.2044-8317.1963.tb00206.x

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Items 501–600 of 739

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Stamm, C. L., & Moore, J. E. (1980) · Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport · doi:10.1080/02701367.1980.10605206 · Cited by 4
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The Theory of Measurement Reliability
Krause, M. S. (1969) · The Journal of General Psychology · doi:10.1080/00221309.1969.9710492 · Cited by 4
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Nachmias, C., & Ridgewoy, C. (1986) · Review of Policy Research · doi:10.1111/j.1541-1338.1986.tb00526.x · Cited by 4
Observation as a tool for evaluation of implementation
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Aldosari, K. A. (2013) · Victoria University Research Repository (Victoria University) · Cited by 4
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Generalizability Theory
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Zumbo, B. D. (2025) · Educational and Psychological Measurement · doi:10.1177/00131644251389891 · Cited by 3
“A major advance came with the formalization of CTT by Guttman (1945), Cronbach et al. (1963), Novick (1966), Rozeboom (1966), and Lord and Novick (1968).”
A Generalizability Study of Teach, a Classroom Observation Tool
Bazaldúa, D. A. L., Molina, E., & Pushparatnam, A. (2021) · Springer proceedings in mathematics & statistics · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-74772-5_42 · Cited by 4
Using photographs for rating severity degrees of clinical appearance in research mice enables valid discrimination of extreme but not mild and moderate conditions: A pilot study
Krueger, J. C., Boecker, M., Gauggel, S., Bleich, A., & Tolba, R. H. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0287965 · Cited by 3
The association between personality, relationship satisfaction, and psychopathology in a three‐wave, longitudinal study
Dashineau, S. C., Napolitano, S. C., & South, S. C. (2023) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/jopy.12910 · Cited by 3
Applying Rasch Methodology to Examine and Enhance Precision of the Baby Care Questionnaire
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“Unlike other statistical methods, such as classical test theory and generalisability theory (Cronbach et al., 1963), Rasch methodology can accurately estimate the unique contributions of individual items to the overall latent variable (e.g. structure or attunement beliefs) based on sample…”
Method
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“Both questions were answered with Generalizability Theory (GT) [15,16], using generalizability studies (G studies).”
Perceived Stress Scale (PSS)
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Internal Consistency and Power When Comparing Total Scores from Two Groups
Barchard, K. A., & Brouwers, V. P. (2016) · Multivariate Behavioral Research · doi:10.1080/00273171.2016.1166422 · Cited by 4
Examining Cross-Cultural Applicability via Generalizability Theory
SOYSAL, S. (2023) · Participatory Educational Research · doi:10.17275/per.23.10.10.1 · Cited by 3
“Cronbach et al. (1963) have explained the concept of G-theory as follow: "an investigator asks about the precision or reliability of a measure because he/she wishes to generalize from the observations in hand to some class of observations to which it belongs...”
Background
How Can We Move Advanced Methodology into Practice More Effectively?
Pek, J. C. X., & Bauer, D. J. (2023) · Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1177/23727322221144649 · Cited by 3
“For instance, generalizability theory (Cronbach et al., 1963) led to considering different types of reliability (Shrout & Fleiss, 1979, one of the most highly cited papers noted above), and an alternative perspective to replication (Shrout & Rodgers, 2018).”
Background
Factors Affecting Efficiency of Interrater Reliability Estimates from Planned Missing Data Designs on a Fixed Budget
van der Ark, L. A., Jorgensen, T. D., & ten Hove, D. (2023) · Springer proceedings in mathematics & statistics · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-27781-8_1 · Cited by 3
Do Social Programs Help Some Beneficiaries More Than Others? Evaluating the Potential for Comparison Group Designs to Yield Low-Bias Estimates of Differential Impact
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Interrater Reliability for Interdependent Social Network Data: A Generalizability Theory Approach
ten Hove, D., Jorgensen, T. D., & van der Ark, L. A. (2025) · Multivariate Behavioral Research · doi:10.1080/00273171.2024.2444940 · Cited by 3
“We use Generalizability theory (GT; Cronbach et al., 1963; Shavelson et al., 1989) to develop IRR coefficients for interdependent social network data.”
Przywództwo a konkurencyjność organizacji przedsiębiorczych
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“Cronbach, Rajaratnam, and Gleser (1963) have pointed out that what the true-error model postulates, the equivalent-forms model derives, and vice-versa.”
Background
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Turner, A. A., Bouffard, M., & Lukaski, H. C. (1996) · Sports medicine, training, and rehabilitation/Sports medicine, training and rehabilitation · doi:10.1080/15438629609512074 · Cited by 3
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Jolly, B. C. (1982) · Programmed Learning and Educational Technology · doi:10.1080/0033039820190203 · Cited by 3
RIGOROUSLY AND NONRIGOROUSLY PARALLEL TEST FORMS*
Lord, F. M. (1964) · ETS Research Bulletin Series · doi:10.1002/j.2333-8504.1964.tb00323.x · Cited by 3
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“Such mixed-model analysis has been a staple of fields including agriculture, biology, and psychology (Cronbach, Rajaratnam, and Gleser 1963; Cronbach 1972; Shavelson, Webb, and Rowley 1989; Littell et al. 1996; Kafkafi et al. 2005; Milliken and Johnson 2009).”
Method
Methodische Grundlagen und Anwendungen der Generalisierbarkeitstheorie in der betriebswirtschaftlichen Forschung
Eisend, M. (2007) · WiSt - Wirtschaftswissenschaftliches Studium · doi:10.15358/0340-1650-2007-10-494 · Cited by 3
Sampling Engagement in Shared Reading Activities With Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Generalizability Study
Ford, A. L. B., & Fleury, V. P. (2021) · Topics in Early Childhood Special Education · doi:10.1177/02711214211031985 · Cited by 3
An Analysis of Variance Model for Assessing Reliability of Naturalistic Observations
Berk, R. A. (1978) · Perceptual and Motor Skills · doi:10.2466/pms.1978.47.1.271 · Cited by 3
STATISTICAL AND PSYCHOMETRIC INFERENCE IN PRINCIPAL COMPONENTS ANALYSIS
Levine, R. L., & Hunter, J. E. (1971) · Multivariate Behavioral Research · doi:10.1207/s15327906mbr0601_7 · Cited by 3
Score Dependability and Decision Consistency
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The Generalizability of Cross‐Moderation
Cohen, L., & Johnson, S. (1982) · British Educational Research Journal · doi:10.1080/0141192820080205 · Cited by 3
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Popp, L. E., & Raven, R. J. (1972) · Journal of Research in Science Teaching · doi:10.1002/tea.3660090210 · Cited by 3
Utility of Analysis of Variance with Repeated Measures Programs for Estimating Reliability
Berk, R. A. (1975) · Perceptual and Motor Skills · doi:10.2466/pms.1975.41.2.441 · Cited by 3
Evaluation of the Implementation of a Program of Adaptive Education at the Second Grade (1972-73).
Leinhardt, G. (1974) · Cited by 3
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Yang, Y., Oosterhof, A., & Xia, Y. R. (2015) · The Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1080/00220671.2014.917255 · Cited by 2
“The numbers of students who participated were 20, 11, 21, and 23 for these four classes.”
Background
Qualitative Individual Differences are Useful, but Reliability Should be Assessed and Not Assumed
Hedge, C. (2021) · Journal of Cognition · doi:10.5334/joc.169 · Cited by 2
Reliability
Reynolds, C. R., Altmann, R. A., & Allen, D. N. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-59455-8_4 · Cited by 2
Investigating Differential Severity Across Linguistic Subgroups in Automated Scoring of Student Argumentation
Bracey, Z. B., Stuhlsatz, M. A. M., Wilson, C. D., Cheuk, T., Santiago, M. M., Osborne, J. F., Haudek, K. C., & Donovan, B. (2023) · Contemporary trends and issues in science education · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-28776-3_15 · Cited by 2
Generalizability Theory in International Behavioral Health Assessment
Medvedev, O. N. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-89738-3_64-1 · Cited by 2
Barriers and Motivators toward Childhood COVID-19 Vaccination: A Cross-Sectional Study Conducted among Saudi Population
Alosaimi, H., Alqahtani, A., Alanazi, N. M., et al. (2023) · Medicina · doi:10.3390/medicina59122050 · Cited by 2
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Method
Commensurability engineering is first and foremost a theoretical exercise
Vandekerckhove, J. (2024) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x23002224 · Cited by 2
Monte Carlo simulation studies of reliability in psychometrics
Novak, J., & Rebernjak, B. (2024) · Advances in Methodology and Statistics · doi:10.51936/nolj5339 · Cited by 2
Comparing manual and automated methods for calculating speaking rate in Parkinson's disease
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Brennan, R. L. (1973) · Journal of Educational Technology Systems · doi:10.2190/6hyr-a4qn-a7vk-60xy · Cited by 2
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Revision of a Criterion-Referenced Vocabulary Test Using Generalizability Theory
Kumazawa, T. (2009) · JALT Journal · doi:10.37546/jaltjj31.1-4 · Cited by 2
“G theory, introduced by Cronbach, Rajaratnam, and Gleser (1963), was extended by Cronbach, Gleser, Nanda, and Rajaratnam (1972) and has been discussed in numerous books on psychological measurement (Brennan, 1983, 2001; Fyans, 1983; Shavelson & Webb, 1991; Strube, 2000; Suen, 1990; Thompson, 2003).”
Influencia del tipo defensa sobre el éxito en el lanzamiento
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Estimacion de la precision de un diseño multivariable de medidas repetidas
Gras, J. A., Villaseñor, Á. B., & López, J. L. L. (1991) · Anales de Psicología · Cited by 2
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Making the Grade
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“…(two-tier) assessed the influence of item-level residual 11It should be noted that these are not exhaustive test theory models, e.g., generalizability theory (Cronbach et al., 1963). dependencies over time, indicating that they should be accounted for in fixed-content, repeated-measures designs.12”
Background
Longitudinal investigation of the stable and dynamic components of the World Health Organization Quality of Life Measure (WHOQOL-BREF) using generalizability theory
Norden, P. A., Lyndon, M., Krägeloh, C. U., Henning, M. A., & Medvedev, O. N. (2021) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-021-02474-0 · Cited by 2
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Generalizability Theory in the Evaluation of Psychological Profile in Track and Field
Sanz-Fernández, C., Morales‐Sánchez, V., Castellano, J., et al. (2024) · Sports · doi:10.3390/sports12050127 · Cited by 2
Ability Factors and Environmental Influences
Vernon, P. E. (1973) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-011-6129-9_11 · Cited by 2
Statistical Evaluation of the Treatment Response Assessment Method (TRAM) for Psychiatric Disorders
Frosch, W. A., HEKIMIAN, L. J., Warwick, K. M., & Friedhoff, A. J. (1969) · The Journal of Clinical Pharmacology · doi:10.1177/009127006900900203 · Cited by 2
The Development of Advertising-Centered versus Individual-Centered Scales
Muncy, J. A., & Gomes, R. (1992) · Journal of Current Issues & Research in Advertising · doi:10.1080/10641734.1992.10504980 · Cited by 2
Accurate prediction of individual intellectual functioning by the Shipley-Hartford
Prado, W. M., & Taub, D. V. (1966) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/1097-4679(196607)22:3 · Cited by 23
The Application of Generalizability Theory to the Reliability of Ratings
Huysamen, G. K. (1990) · South African Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1177/008124639002000310 · Cited by 2
A Memory Search Model of Reliability
Hunter, J. E., & Gillmore, G. M. (1974) · Sociological Methods & Research · doi:10.1177/004912417400200302 · Cited by 2
Quasi‐simplex analysis of Piaget's operative structures and stages
Raven, R. J., & Guerin, R. O. (1975) · Science Education · doi:10.1002/sce.3730590221 · Cited by 2
Measuring marketing constructs : a comparison of three measurement theories
Lin, S. (2013) · NORA - Norwegian Open Research Archives · Cited by 2
From one environment to many: The problem of replicability of statistical inferencesPreprint
Higgins, J. J., Higgins, M., & Lin, J. (2019) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1904.10036 · Cited by 2
“Such mixed-model analysis has been a staple of fields including agriculture, biology, and psychology (Cronbach, Rajaratnam, and Gleser 1963; Cronbach 1972; Shavelson, Webb, and Rowley 1989; Littell et al. 1996; Kafkafi et al. 2005; Milliken and Johnson 2009).”
Method
Strategies for Research and Evaluation in Early Childhood Education
Messick, S., & Barrows, T. S. (1972) · Teachers College Record The Voice of Scholarship in Education · doi:10.1177/016146817207300612 · Cited by 2
Meta-studies for robust tests of theoryPreprint
Baribault, B., Donkin, C., Little, D. R., Trueblood, J. S., Oravecz, Z., van Ravenzwaaij, D., White, C., de Boeck, P. A. L., & Vandekerckhove, J. (2017) · doi:10.31219/osf.io/g84py · Cited by 1
Models of Inference in Evaluating Brain-Behavior Relationships in Children
Fennell, E. B., & Bauer, R. M. (1997) · Critical issues in neuropsychology · doi:10.1007/978-1-4757-5351-6_10 · Cited by 2
Classical test theory
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Commensurability engineering is first and foremost a theoretical exercisePreprint
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The Generalizability of Executive Function Ratings Across Dimensions and Parent and Self-reports in a School-Based Adolescent Sample
Singh, L. J., & Floyd, R. G. (2022) · Contemporary School Psychology · doi:10.1007/s40688-022-00436-2 · Cited by 1
“Generalizability theory (GT; Cronbach et al., 1963) expands CTT methods focused on reliability and enables researchers to examine multiple sources of error variance simultaneously, versus in isolation.”
Background
PUANLAYICILAR ARASI UYUMUN FARKLI ÖLÇEKLEME TÜRLERİ, PUANLAYICI SAYISI VE PUANLANAN SAYISI AÇISINDAN İNCELENMESİ
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Application of generalizability theory to evaluate the Kessler Psychological Distress Scale and distinguish between enduring and dynamic distress
Yan, V. Y.-X., Numbers, K. T., Sachdev, P. S., Brodaty, H., & Medvedev, O. N. (2023) · Journal of Affective Disorders Reports · doi:10.1016/j.jadr.2023.100668 · Cited by 1
“This theory goes a step further than classical test theory by accounting for the different sources of variance and their interactions, facilitating a deeper understanding of the reliability of psychometric measurements (Vispoel et al., 2018; Cronbach et al., 1963).”
Background
Geographically Weighted Cronbach's Alpha (GWalpha): An Exploratory Local Measure of Reliability for Scale Construction
Zhang, S., & Li, Z. (2025) · Geographical Analysis · doi:10.1111/gean.70021 · Cited by 1
A Comprehensive Multivariate Generalizability Theory-Based Analysis of Responses to the IPIP-NEO-120
Vispoel, W. P., Hong, H., Lee, H., & Chen, T. (2026) · Journal of Personality Assessment · doi:10.1080/00223891.2025.2606013 · Cited by 1
“…to the alpha coefficients reported in Table 2 but be interpreted as the extent to which results for a given scale could be generalized to the overall domain from which items are sampled, with no assumptions of score dimensionality or distributional characteristics made (Cronbach et al., 1963).”
Estimating Item Wording Effects in Self-Report Measures with Generalizability Theory-Based SEMs: Illustrations Using the Self-Description Questionnaire-III
Vispoel, W. P., Hong, H., Lee, H., & Chen, T. (2026) · Journal of Personality Assessment · doi:10.1080/00223891.2026.2628589 · Cited by 1
“Although GT SEMs are not conducive to fit tests because no formal structural relationship or distributional assumptions are made about observed scores (see, e.g., Cronbach et al., 1963, p .”
A Meta-Analysis of the 2004 Campaign Polls: An Analogy to Practice and Publication in Psychology
Collings, R. D., Eaton, L. G., & Hendrickson, M. (2007) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.2466/pr0.100.3.847-856 · Cited by 1
Reliability of Broadband Middle-Ear Power Reflectance in Younger and Older Adults: Application of Generalizability Theory
Mahoney, M. J., McFarland, D. J., Carpenter, M. S., et al. (2013) · American Journal of Audiology · doi:10.1044/1059-0889(2013/12-0063 · Cited by 1
Establishing the Index System for Performance Measurement of Local Government's Public Service Quality Management
Wang, J. (2011) · International Conference on Management and Service Science (MASS) · doi:10.1109/icmss.2011.5998838 · Cited by 1
Expanding Frontiers in Research Designs, Methods, and Measurement in Support of Evidence-Based Practice in Early Childhood Special Education
Bishop, C. D., Snyder, P., Algina, J. J., & Leite, W. L. (2016) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-28492-7_27 · Cited by 1
Construct Validity: Developments and Debates
Slaney, K. L. (2017) · Palgrave Macmillan UK eBooks · doi:10.1057/978-1-137-38523-9_4 · Cited by 1
Measurement Report and Presentation
Pendrill, L. (2019) · Springer series in measurement science and technology · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-28695-8_5 · Cited by 1
Psychometric Testing of the Debriefing Assessment for Simulation in Healthcare (DASH) for Trainee‐led, In Situ Simulations in the Pediatric Emergency Department Context
Zargham, S. R., Hanson, A. L., Laniewicz, M., Sandquist, M. K., Kessler, D. O., Gilbert, G. E., & Calhoun, A. W. (2020) · AEM Education and Training · doi:10.1002/aet2.10482 · Cited by 1
“We chose to evaluate the tool’s psychometric properties (and hence its internal structure) using both traditional measures such as Gwet’s AC2 (inter-rater reliability), coefficient alpha (internal consistency), and G theory.(27,29,30)”
Method
The Development of a Counseling Service Questionnaire: Study of Validation and Reliability
Cao, H., Chiang, M.-T., & Chen, P. (2023) · Journal of Higher Education Theory and Practice · doi:10.33423/jhetp.v23i5.5930 · Cited by 1
“According to the expert evaluation of the reliability of the questionnaire, if the data was obtained by multiple evaluators using multi-level scoring to evaluate multiple objects, it is better to use Cronbach’s alpha coefficient to directly calculate the consistency (Cronbach et al., 1963).”
Method
"Determining When Subscale Scores from Assessment Measures Provide Added Value"
Vispoel, W. P. (2023) · Biomedical Journal of Scientific & Technical Research · doi:10.26717/bjstr.2023.53.008457 · Cited by 1
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Background
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Authors: Cronbach, L. J., Rajaratnam, N., & Gleser, G. C.
Affiliations: University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign (US)
Corresponding author: Rajaratnam, Nageswari
Venue: British Journal of Statistical Psychology
Publisher: Wiley
Published: 1963-11
Volume: 16
Issue: 2
Pages: 137-163
ISSN: 0950-561X (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1111/j.2044-8317.1963.tb00206.x
OpenAlex: W2023420063
Cited by: 737
References: 0
Citations by year: 2026: 17 · 2025: 20 · 2024: 28 · 2023: 40 · 2022: 31 · 2021: 29 · 2020: 29 · 2019: 21 · 2018: 31 · 2017: 27 · 2016: 23 · 2015: 24 · 2014: 22 · 2013: 14 · 2012: 21
FWCI: 40.77
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: onlinelibrary.wiley.com/termsAndConditions#vor (vor, 17443 d)
Locations: British Journal of Statistical Psychology (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Statistics, Probability and Uncertainty › Reliability and Agreement in Measurement
Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods and Bayesian Inference
Keywords: generalizability theory, reliability theory, intraclass correlation coefficient, random sampling, lower bounds, measurement reliability

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THEORY OF GENERALIZABILITY: A LIBERALIZATION OF RELIABILITY THEORY†

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