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THEORY OF GENERALIZABILITY: A LIBERALIZATION OF RELIABILITY THEORY†
Abstract
“Reliability theory” is reinterpreted as a theory regarding the adequac with which one can generalize from one observation to a universe of observations. If the observation is randomly sampled from the universe—whether or not the universe consists of equivalent observations—the intraclass correlation provides an approximate lower bound to the expected value of the desired coefficient of generalizability.
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“G-theory, a robust statistical methodology pioneered by Cronbach etal. (1963, 1972), offers a comprehensive analysis of the reliability and generalizability of assessment scores obtained from psychometric scales. It also identifies specific error sources potentially influencing measurements.”
From Investigating state and trait aspects of resilience using Generalizability theory (2024) · cites this paper as Cronbach et al., 1963
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Items 701–739 of 739
Supplemental Material for Applying Multivariate Generalizability Theory to Psychological Assessments
(2023) · Psychological Methods · doi:10.1037/met0000606.supp
Pooja, R., Ghosh, P., & Sreekumar, V. (2023) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/3je65
Collins, A. A., Ciullo, S. P., & Sandbank, M. P. (2023) · Literacy studies · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-36472-3_15
김, 진. (2023) · 한국체육학회지 · doi:10.23949/kjpe.2023.11.62.6.43
Reliability for multilevel data: A correlation approachPreprint
Lin, T., Tuerlinckx, F., & Vanbelle, S. (2024) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/75der
Reliability in longitudinal study
Kim, J. (2024) · Korean Journal of Applied Statistics · doi:10.5351/kjas.2024.37.1.061
Özder, H., & Takır, A. (2024) · Journal of Advanced Education Studies · doi:10.48166/ejaes.1415158
Millman, J., & Williams, R. (1968) · Psychometrika · doi:10.1007/s0033312300004543
ReliabilityPreprint
Revelle, W., & Condon, D. M. (2017) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/jgwm4_v1
GeneralizIT: A Python Solution for Generalizability Theory Computations
Smith, T. J., Kline, T. J. B., & Kline, A. S. (2025) · SoftwareX · doi:10.1016/j.softx.2025.102235
Shoesmith, W. D., Kamu, A., & Pang, N. T. P. (2025) · Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science · doi:10.1016/j.jcbs.2025.100918
Medvedev, O. N., & Siegert, R. J. (2025) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-47219-0_5
Data for Learning and Program Evaluation: Managing, Analyzing, and Reporting OSCE Data
Gillespie, C. C., & Ark, T. K. (2025) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-88752-9_6
Boonda, P., Markboon, M., & Wiromjeam, W. (2025) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.5385153
Medvedev, O. N., & Krägeloh, C. U. (2025) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-00353-9_3
Distinguishing trait and state competitiveness in university students using generalizability theory
Medvedev, O. N., Wang, G., Krägeloh, C. U., & Zhao, Q. (2025) · Discover Psychology · doi:10.1007/s44202-025-00486-6
“Developed by Cronbach et al. [10], G-Theory expands on CTT by examining multiple error sources, yielding a more precise reliability assessment across varied conditions [11, 12].”
Gozzoli, P. C., Pongthananikorn, S., Kittisopee, T., Phunpon, S., Tantipiwattanasakul, K., Tangkheunkan, P., Khaw-ngern, K., Chakchai, K., Kiatying‐Angsulee, N., & Saengungsumalee, S. (2025) · Journal of Cannabis Research · doi:10.1186/s42238-025-00326-3 · Cited by 1
“Consequently, there have been calls for new legislation, such as the Cannabis and Hemp Bill, to provide clearer regulatory frameworks (Cronbach et al. 1963).”
(2011) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/978-1-60752-409-020251025
Method Specific Factors in Personality Tests
Lindgren, T. W. (2007) · Figshare
Gonçalves, F., & Gaudêncio, M. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.26626543
Haven, T., Tijdink, J., Martinson, B. C., Bouter, L. M., & Oort, F. J. (2021) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.14532144
GENERALIZABILITY ANALYSIS OF THE READING SUBTEST IN AN ENGLISH DIAGNOSTIC TEST
Susyetina, A., & Rosnawati, R. (2025) · International Journal of Current Approaches in Language Education and Social Sciences · doi:10.35452/caless.1725051
Waldorp, L., Marsman, M., & Borsboom, D. (2026) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.6117941
Theta reliability and new estimators beyond Alpha's shadow
Zumbo, B. D. (2026) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-443-26629-4.00147-7
Test-Retest Reliability and Construct Validity of the Brief Dark Triad MeasurementsPreprint
Mõttus, R., & Dragostinov, Y. (2022) · OSF Preprints (OSF Preprints)
Different multivariate generalizability theory designs for a nested dataset: testing applicability
Ji, J. (2026) · Quality & Quantity · doi:10.1007/s11135-026-02845-4
Kuhlman, B. B. (2018) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/978-1-64113-328-920251007
Üğücü, G., Polat, Ö. G., Uysal, D. A., et al. (2026) · Journal of Neonatal Nursing · doi:10.1016/j.jnn.2026.101909
Smith, M. S., & South, S. C. (2026) · Multivariate Behavioral Research · doi:10.1080/00273171.2026.2683364
“Next, we calculated consistency (i.e., generalizability coefficients; Cronbach et al., 1963) according to the four conceptual models (Table 5; Cranford et al., 2006), including persons (within couples) and couples as the objects of measurement in different models.”
Modeling Reliability and Validity Across OSCE Station Numbers in Final MBBS Exam
Kumar, A., Krishnamurthy, K., Motilal, S., et al. (2026) · International Medical Education · doi:10.3390/ime5030082
Cholera vaccination readiness in six African countries: A psychological and ecological study
Geiger, M., Korn, L., Temme, H., et al. (2026) · Vaccine · doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2026.128932
Tosi, G., Gallucci, M., & Romano, D. (2026) · Methods in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.metip.2026.100275 · Cited by 1
Capturing daily well-being: psychometric evaluation of the MHC-SF in a daily diary design
Ploke, V., Batinic, B., & Stieger, S. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1887563
Kekes-Szabo, S., Casilio, M., & Duff, M. C. (2026) · American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology · doi:10.1044/2026_ajslp-26-00135
Li, R., Wang, L., Zhang, J., Xu, H., Zou, J., Xiao, Y., & Zhao, Y. (2026) · Aerospace · doi:10.3390/aerospace13090836
“For this reason, the present study further incorporated generalizability theory (GT) [44].”
Vispoel, W. P., Lee, H., & Chen, T. (2026) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs16091636
“Estimation routines in generalizability theory (Cronbach et al., 1963, 1972), the framework upon which our partitioning indices extend, have historically relied on (co)variance-based estimators comparable to unweighted least squares (ULS) rather than ML-based estimators, but restricted maximum…”
Ing, M., & Shih, J. C. (2013) · Middle Grades Research Journal · doi:10.1108/mgrj-06-2013-0006
Promoting living wage in Hamilton : a comparative case study of faith-based activism
Jayatunge, S. (2014) · VIUSpace (Vancouver Island University Library)
Metadata
- Authors
- Cronbach, L. J., Rajaratnam, N., & Gleser, G. C.
- Affiliations
- University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign (US)
- Corresponding author
- Rajaratnam, Nageswari
- Venue
- British Journal of Statistical Psychology
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 1963-11
- Volume
- 16
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 137-163
- ISSN
- 0950-561X (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2023420063
- Cited by
- 737
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 17 · 2025: 20 · 2024: 28 · 2023: 40 · 2022: 31 · 2021: 29 · 2020: 29 · 2019: 21 · 2018: 31 · 2017: 27 · 2016: 23 · 2015: 24 · 2014: 22 · 2013: 14 · 2012: 21
- FWCI
- 40.77
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- British Journal of Statistical Psychology (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Statistics, Probability and Uncertainty › Reliability and Agreement in Measurement
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods and Bayesian Inference
- Keywords
- generalizability theory, reliability theory, intraclass correlation coefficient, random sampling, lower bounds, measurement reliability
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