The effectiveness of virtual reality in patients with spinal pain: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Ahern, Meghan M.; Dean, Lindsay V.; Stoddard, Carolyn C.; Agrawal, Aakriti; Kim, Kimin; Cook, Chad E.; Narciso Garcia, Alessandra

doi:10.1111/papr.12885

Cited by 109Musculoskeletal pain and rehabilitationVirtual Reality Applications and ImpactsPain Management and Treatment

The effectiveness of virtual reality in patients with spinal pain: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Ahern, Meghan M., Dean, Lindsay V., Stoddard, Carolyn C., Agrawal, Aakriti, Kim, Kimin, Cook, Chad E., Narciso Garcia, Alessandra·2020·Pain Practice

DOI 10.1111/papr.12885

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Abstract

BACKGROUND: Virtual reality (VR) technologies have been shown to be beneficial in various areas of health care; to date, there are no systematic reviews examining the effectiveness of VR technology for the treatment of spinal pain. PURPOSE: To investigate the effectiveness of VR technology in the management of individuals with acute, subacute, and chronic spinal pain. METHODS: Six electronic databases were searched until November 2019. Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) assessing the effectiveness of VR were eligible for inclusion. Two independent reviewers extracted the data and assessed the risk of bias for each study and the overall quality of evidence. Mean differences of outcomes were pooled as appropriate using random-effects models. RESULTS: Seven RCTs with high risk of bias met review criteria. Quality of evidence ranged from very low to low quality. In patients with chronic neck pain, VR improved global perceived effect (GPE), satisfaction, and general health at short-term follow-up, as well as general health and balance at intermediate-term follow-up compared to kinematic training. VR improved pain intensity and disability at short-term and long-term follow-up compared to conventional proprioceptive training in patients with chronic neck pain. In patients with either subacute or chronic low back pain (LBP), VR improved pain, disability, and fear of movement compared to lumbar stabilization exercises and improved pain compared to conventional physical therapy (at short-term follow-up). In patients with chronic LBP, VR improved pain compared to lumbar stabilization exercises and improved fear of movement compared to conventional physical therapy (at short-term follow-up). CONCLUSION: VR's potential for improvement in outcomes for spinal pain that demonstrated statistical and/or clinical significance (pain intensity, disability, fear of movement, GPE, patient satisfaction, general health status, and balance) highlights the need for more focused, higher-quality research on the efficacy and effectiveness of VR for treatment of patients with spinal pain.

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The authors of one virtual reality review reported that there were some clinically significant improvements seen for fear avoidance.
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From Impact of healthcare interventions on distress following acute musculoskeletal/orthopaedic injury: A scoping review of systematic reviews (2024) · cites this paper as [109]

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“Recent meta-analyses of VR noted a lack of high-quality efficacy studies for chronic pain [21], except for those involving physical rehabilitation programs [22].”
Background
Non-pharmacological and non-surgical treatments for low back pain in adults: an overview of Cochrane reviews
Rizzo, R. R. N., Cashin, A. G., Wand, B. M., Ferraro, M. C., Sharma, S., Lee, H., O’Hagan, E. T., Maher, C. G., Furlan, A. D., van Tulder, M. W., et al. (2025) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd014691.pub2 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
A Serious Game for Performing Task-Oriented Cervical Exercises Among Older Adult Patients With Chronic Neck Pain: Development, Suitability, and Crossover Pilot Study
Beltran-Alacreu, H., Navarro-Fernández, G., Godia-Lledó, D., Graell-Pasarón, L., Ramos-González, Á., Raya, R., Martin-Pintado Zugasti, A., & Fernandez-Carnero, J. (2022) · JMIR Serious Games · doi:10.2196/31404 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“The use of serious games for neck pain has been evaluated in various investigations, normally described in terms of immersive virtual reality (VR) serious games using head-mounted displays or using nonimmersive flat-screen computer games [13-15].”
Background
Perspectives on the use of Virtual Reality within a public hospital setting: surveying knowledge, attitudes, and perceived utility among health care professionals
Shiner, C. T., Croker, G., McGhee, J. B., & Faux, S. G. (2024) · BMC Digital Health · doi:10.1186/s44247-024-00076-x · Cited by 30 · see citing works
The Impact of Kinesiophobia on Physical Activity and Quality of Life in Patients with Chronic Diseases: A Systematic Literature Review
Wlazło, M., Szlacheta, P., Grajek, M. K., Staśkiewicz‐Bartecka, W., Rozmiarek, M., Malchrowicz-Mośko, E., & Korzonek-Szlacheta, I. (2025) · Applied Sciences · doi:10.3390/app15042086 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Digital Therapeutics (DTx) Expand Multimodal Treatment Options for Chronic Low Back Pain: The Nexus of Precision Medicine, Patient Education, and Public Health
Rohaj, A., & Bulaj, G. W. (2023) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare11101469 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Role of Immersive Virtual Reality in Motor Behaviour Decision-Making in Chronic Pain Patients
Guerra-Armas, J., Flores-Cortés, M., Galán, C. P., Luque-Suárez, A., & Touche, R. L. (2023) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci13040617 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“[148] Evaluate effectiveness of VR technology in the management of individuals with acute, subacute, and chronic spinal pain.”
Background
Effects of Virtual Reality Therapy Combined With Conventional Rehabilitation on Pain, Kinematic Function, and Disability in Patients With Chronic Neck Pain: Randomized Controlled Trial
Guo, Q., Zhang, L., Han, L., Gui, C., Chen, G., Ling, C., Wang, W., & Gao, Q. (2024) · JMIR Serious Games · doi:10.2196/42829 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“A recent meta-analysis [30] consisting of 2 randomized controlled trials (RCTs) suggested that VR therapy combined with kinematic training could enhance the global perceived effect, patient satisfaction, and general health of patients with neck pain compared to treatment with kinematic training…”
Method
A synthesis of meta-analyses of immersive virtual reality interventions in pain
Rooney, T., Sharpe, L., Winiarski, N., Todd, J., Colagiuri, B., Ryckeghem, D. M. L. V., Crombez, G., & Michalski, S. C. (2025) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2025.102566 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Effect of Immersive Virtual Reality on Pain and Anxiety at a Veterans Affairs Health Care Facility
Rawlins, C. R., Veigulis, Z. P., Hebert, C. A., Curtin, C. M., & Osborne, T. F. (2021) · Frontiers in Virtual Reality · doi:10.3389/frvir.2021.719681 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Virtual Reality Therapy for the Management of Chronic Spinal Pain: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
Zhang, T., Li, X., Zhou, X., Zhan, L., Wu, F., Huang, Z., Sun, Y., Feng, Y., & Du, Q. (2024) · JMIR Serious Games · doi:10.2196/50089 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“There is limited evidence regarding the beneficial effects of VR therapy on pain in patients with CNP [24] and CLBP [25,26]; furthermore, there is insufficient focus on inflammatory factors.”
Background
Virtual reality-based therapy for chronic low back and neck pain: a systematic review with meta-analysis
Henríquez-Jurado, J. M., Osuna‐Pérez, M. C., García‐López, H., Lomas‐Vega, R., López‐Ruiz, M. D. C., Obrero‐Gaitán, E., & Cortés‐Pérez, I. (2024) · EFORT Open Reviews · doi:10.1530/eor-23-0197 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“Only Ahern (34) concluded in a systematic review without meta-analysis that VRBT was probably better than comparators.”
BackgroundResultInfluential
Innovative treatment formats, technologies, and clinician trainings that improve access to behavioral pain treatment for youth and adults
Darnall, B. D., Edwards, K. A., Courtney, R. E., Ziadni, M. S., Simons, L. E., & Harrison, L. E. (2023) · Frontiers in Pain Research · doi:10.3389/fpain.2023.1223172 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Remote Virtual Simulation for Incident Commanders—Cognitive Aspects
Wijkmark, C. H., Metallinou, M.-M., & Heldal, I. (2021) · Applied Sciences · doi:10.3390/app11146434 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Examining the Feasibility, Acceptability, and Preliminary Efficacy of an Immersive Virtual Reality–Assisted Lower Limb Strength Training for Knee Osteoarthritis: Mixed Methods Pilot Randomized Controlled Trial
Lo, H. H. M., Ng, M. S. N., Fong, H. P.-Y., Lai, H. H. K., Wang, B., Wong, S. Y. S., & Sit, R. W. S. (2024) · JMIR Serious Games · doi:10.2196/52563 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Virtual Reality for Chronic Pain Management Among Historically Marginalized Populations: Systematic Review of Usability Studies
Dy, M., Olazo, K., Lisker, S., Brown, E., Saha, A., Weinberg, J., & Sarkar, U. (2023) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/40044 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Comparing virtual reality exergaming with conventional exercise in rehabilitation of people with multiple sclerosis: A systematic review
Moeinzadeh, A. M., Calder, A., Petersen, C. J., Hoermann, S., & Daneshfar, A. (2022) · Neuropsychological Rehabilitation · doi:10.1080/09602011.2022.2107021 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“It made you feel like you’ve still got it”: experiences of people with chronic low back pain undertaking a single session of body image training in virtual reality
Kelly, J., Coppieters, M. W., Kluver, J. P., Deen, M., Rio, E., & Harvie, D. S. (2022) · Physiotherapy Theory and Practice · doi:10.1080/09593985.2022.2095313 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“While early reviews and meta-analyses suggests that VR is capable of reducing acute, experimental, and chronic pain; studies are typically of low quality (Ahern et al., 2020; Tack, 2021).”
Background
Virtual reality exercises in an interdisciplinary rehabilitation programme for persons with chronic neck pain: A feasibility study
Glavare, M., Stålnacke, B., Häger, C. K., & Löfgren, M. (2021) · Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine – Clinical Communications · doi:10.2340/20030711-1000067 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“Although these results are promising, there is a lack of high-quality studies (23) and studies investigating the feasibility of physical exercises in VR for chronic neck pain in a clinical context.”
Background
Effects of non‐pharmacological interventions on pain in wound patients during dressing change: A systematic review
Ma, Y., Li, Y., Wang, C., Zhang, Y., Wang, L., Hu, R., Yin, Y., & He, F. (2024) · Nursing Open · doi:10.1002/nop2.2107 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“Additionally, there have been some benefits to the use of VR distraction (Ahern et al., 2020), postoperative cardiac patients (Rousseaux et al., 2020), and burn patients (Furness et al., 2019).”
Background
Improving Adherence to a Home Rehabilitation Plan for Chronic Neck Pain through Immersive Virtual Reality: A Case Report
Cioeta, M., Pournajaf, S., Goffredo, M., Giovannico, G., & Franceschini, M. (2023) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm12051926 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Physiotherapy with integrated virtual reality for patients with complex chronic low back pain: protocol for a pragmatic cluster randomized controlled trial (VARIETY study)
Slatman, S., Ostelo, R., van Goor, H., Staal, J. B., & Knoop, J. (2023) · BMC Musculoskeletal Disorders · doi:10.1186/s12891-023-06232-0 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Virtual reality facilitated exercise improves pain perception: A crossover study
Rodríguez, S., Makarewicz, N., Wang, E., Zuniga‐Hernandez, M., Titzler, J., Jackson, C., Suen, M. Y., Rosales, O., & Caruso, T. J. (2023) · Journal of Clinical Anesthesia · doi:10.1016/j.jclinane.2023.111257 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Qualitative Validation of a Novel VR Program for Irritable Bowel Syndrome: A VR1 Study
Spiegel, B. M. R., Liran, O., Gale, R., Khalil, C., Makaroff, K. E., Chernoff, R. A., Raber, T. R., Chang, B. W., Pichetshote, N., & Rezaie, A. R. (2022) · The American Journal of Gastroenterology · doi:10.14309/ajg.0000000000001641 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
The effects of virtual reality‐based exercise in adults receiving haemodialysis treatment: A systematic review and meta‐analysis of randomized controlled studies
Yangöz, Ş. T., Kavradım, S. T., & Özer, Z. (2022) · Applied Psychology Health and Well-Being · doi:10.1111/aphw.12426 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Virtual reality based rehabilitation in adults with chronic neck pain: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials
Brea-Gómez, B., Laguna-González, A., Pérez-Gisbert, L., Valenza, M. C., & Torres‐Sánchez, I. (2024) · Virtual Reality · doi:10.1007/s10055-024-00979-0 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“Ahern et al. (2020) investigated the effects of VRBR in chronic neck pain.”
The Current State of Virtual Reality in the Management of Musculoskeletal Conditions and Associated Chronic Pain: Terminology, Technology, and Associations
Opara, M., & Šarabon, N. (2025) · Applied Sciences · doi:10.3390/app15052564 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Effects of Virtual Reality for Postural Control in Chronic Neck Pain: A Single-Blind, Randomized Controlled Study
Çetin, H., Köse, N., Gürses, E., Türkmen, C., Aksoy, S., & Öğe, K. (2023) · Journal of Manipulative and Physiological Therapeutics · doi:10.1016/j.jmpt.2024.02.006 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Impact of healthcare interventions on distress following acute musculoskeletal/orthopaedic injury: A scoping review of systematic reviews
Sim, A., McNeilage, A. G., Gholamrezaei, A., Rebbeck, T., & Ashton-James, C. (2024) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2024-085778 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
The role of virtual reality as adjunctive therapy to spinal cord stimulation in chronic pain: A feasible concept?
Noble, T., Boone, L., & Helou, A. E. (2023) · Frontiers in Pain Research · doi:10.3389/fpain.2023.1094125 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“VR is an arti ﬁ cial computer-based environment designed to create real-world sensory inputs using distinct combinations of interaction devices and sensory display systems (14, 15).”
Background
Exploring the potential of virtual reality for the self-management of chronic pain: A scoping review of its use to address health literacy.
Skidmore, N., Ryan, C., Mankelow, J., Bradford, C., Graham, A., & Martin, D. (2024) · Musculoskeletal Science and Practice · doi:10.1016/j.msksp.2024.102962 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Effects of Virtual Reality on Adults Diagnosed with Chronic Non-Specific Low Back Pain: A Systematic Review
la-Banda-García, R. G.-D., Cruz‐Díaz, D., García-Vázquez, J. F., Martínez-Lentisco, M. D. M., & León-Morillas, F. (2025) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare13111328 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“Although several recent meta-analyses have explored the effectiveness of virtual reality interventions for chronic low back pain [17,42,43], our study includes trials published up to 2024, broadening the scope with more recent and diverse evidence.”
Global Scientific Trends in Virtual Reality for Pain Treatment From 2000 to 2022: Bibliometric Analysis
Yang, X., Zhong, S., Yang, S., He, M., Xu, X., He, S., Fan, G., & Liu, L. (2023) · JMIR Serious Games · doi:10.2196/48354 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“Patients with chronic pain, including chronic cancer pain, chronic neuropathic pain, and chronic low back pain, can also benefit from VR devices, which can provide pain relief and improve mood [80-83].”
Background
Virtual Reality for Subacute Pain After Orthopedic Traumatic Musculoskeletal Injuries
Mace, R. A., Brewer, J. R., Cohen, J. E., Ly, T. V., Weaver, M. J., & Borsook, D. (2024) · Clinical Journal of Pain · doi:10.1097/ajp.0000000000001231 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
The Role of Virtual Reality in the Management of Irritable Bowel Syndrome
Suchak, K. K., Almario, C. V., Liran, O., Chernoff, R. A., & Spiegel, B. M. R. (2024) · Current Gastroenterology Reports · doi:10.1007/s11894-024-00940-w · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“Notably, therapeutic VR has long been used to manage the cognitive, affective, and sensory aspects of pain across diverse condi - tions [34–45].”
Background
Effects of Virtual Reality-Based Interventions on Pain Catastrophizing in People with Chronic Pain: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
Carvajal-Parodi, C., Rossel, P. O., Rodríguez-Alvarado, A., Guede-Rojas, F., & Ponce‐González, J. G. (2025) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm14113782 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“VR’s mechanisms, such as distraction, multisensory stimulation, and attentional demand, help reconfigure pain perception by engaging the insular and sensory cortices, like opioid effects [53,54].”
Chinese Association for the Study of Pain: Experts consensus on ultrasound-guided injections for the treatment of spinal pain in China (2020 edition)
Wang, Y., Wang, A.-Z., Wu, B., Zheng, Y., Zhao, D., Liu, H., Xu, H., Fang, H., Zhang, J., Cheng, Z.-X., et al. (2021) · World Journal of Clinical Cases · doi:10.12998/wjcc.v9.i9.2047 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Use of Virtual Reality to Improve the Quality of the Hospital Stay for Patients in Neurosurgery
Vayssière, P., Constanthin, P. E., Baticam, N. S., Herbelin, B., Degremont, C., Blanke, O., Schaller, K., & Bijlenga, P. (2021) · Frontiers in Virtual Reality · doi:10.3389/frvir.2021.736122 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Effects of Virtual Reality Exercises on Chronic Low Back Pain: Quasi-Experimental Study
Afzal, W., Ahmad, A., Hanif, H. M. B., Chaudhary, N. A., & Gilani, S. A. (2023) · JMIR Rehabilitation and Assistive Technologies · doi:10.2196/43985 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“Distraction is one of the suggested mechanisms that explains the effects of VR on pain [13].”
Background
Implementation of virtual reality for patient distraction during diagnostic cardiac catheterisation
Zablah, J. E., Rodriguez, S. A., Leahy, R., & Morgan, G. J. (2021) · Cardiology in the Young · doi:10.1017/s1047951121002845 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
3D Displays: Their Evolution, Inherent Challenges and Future Perspectives
Pan, X., Xu, X., Dev, S., & Campbell, A. G. (2021) · Lecture notes in networks and systems · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-89912-7_31 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Virtual reality to improve low-back pain and pelvic pain during pregnancy: a pilot RCT for a multicenter randomized controlled trial
García-López, F.-J., Pastora‐Bernal, J., Moreno-Morales, N., Estebanez‐Pérez, M., Liñán-González, A., & Martín‐Valero, R. (2023) · Frontiers in Medicine · doi:10.3389/fmed.2023.1206799 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Measurement properties of a computer adaptive device, the Senscoordination 3D Cervical Trainer, to assess cervical range of motion in people with neck pain
Thoomes, E. J., Cleland, J. A., Falla, D., Pauw, R. D., Maissan, F., & Graaf, M. T.-D. (2023) · Musculoskeletal Science and Practice · doi:10.1016/j.msksp.2023.102861 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Virtual Reality for Patients With Chronic Musculoskeletal Pain and Disability: An Umbrella Review of Systematic Reviews
Alotibi, F. S., Mohammed, W., Hendrick, P. A., & Moffatt, F. (2025) · Health Science Reports · doi:10.1002/hsr2.71163 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Randomized-controlled trial of skills-based vr vs. distraction vr vs. sham VR for chronic low back pain
Spiegel, B. M. R., Eberlein, S. A., Persky, S., ISHIMORI, M. L., Venuturupalli, S., Tu, J., Alhatem, F. J., Vijjeswarapu, M. A., Krut, Z., Norris, T., et al. (2026) · npj Digital Medicine · doi:10.1038/s41746-026-02437-4 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“aspects of pain 8 – 20 .”
Virtual reality to understand pain-associated approach behaviour: a proof-of-concept study
Hilger, K., Häge, A., Zedler, C., Jost, M., & Pauli, P. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-40789-z · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“50 ).”
Comparison of the Acute Effects of Virtual Reality Exergames and Core Stability Exercises on Cognitive Factors, Pain, and Fear Avoidance Beliefs in People with Chronic Nonspecific Low Back Pain
Massah, N., Kahrizi, S., & Neblett, R. (2024) · Games for Health Journal · doi:10.1089/g4h.2024.0003 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“8,45 Only one study has investigated the acute effects of EXG on pain intensity in CLBP, revealing a hypoalgesic effect during and immediately after exercises, which was attributed to VR distraction.”
Immersive Virtual Reality-Based Exercise for Pain Management in Fibromyalgia: An Exploratory Study with Risk of Poor Outcomes Stratification
Carvajal-Parodi, C., Arias-Álvarez, G., Ulloa-Díaz, D., Romero-Vera, L., Andrades-Ramírez, O., Guede-Rojas, F., & Ponce‐González, J. G. (2025) · Applied Sciences · doi:10.3390/app15115956 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Does having an external focus in immersive virtual reality increase range of motion in people with neck pain?
Kragting, M., Pool‐Goudzwaard, A., Pezzica, C., Voogt, L. P., & Coppieters, M. W. (2024) · Musculoskeletal Science and Practice · doi:10.1016/j.msksp.2024.102940 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Effectiveness of incorporating virtual reality-based training into exercise therapy for chronic spinal pain: A systematic review and meta-analysis
Zheng, Y., Kong, L., Xue, J., Wei, X., Zhu, T., Mao, X., & Zhang, Q. (2025) · Journal of Back and Musculoskeletal Rehabilitation · doi:10.1177/10538127251321140 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Short-term Results of Wobble Board-Based Exergame Training on Balance, Functionality, and Fear of Movement in Individuals with Ankle Instability: A Randomized Trial
Turhan, B., & Öztürk, Ö. (2025) · Journal of Manipulative and Physiological Therapeutics · doi:10.1016/j.jmpt.2025.10.003 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Use of Virtual Reality in Interdisciplinary Multimodal Pain Treatment With Insights From Health Care Professionals and Patients: Action Research Study
Ummels, D., Cnockaert, E., Timmers, I., den Hollander, M., & Smeets, R. (2023) · JMIR Rehabilitation and Assistive Technologies · doi:10.2196/47541 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Virtual Environment Rehabilitation for Patients with Motor Neglect Trial (VERMONT): A Single-Center Randomized Controlled Feasibility Trial
de Villiers, E., Stone, T., Wang, N.-W., Sarangi, V., Pelah, A., & Shenker, N. (2021) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci11040464 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“A recent systematic review on virtual reality for spinal pain [33] mainly focused on the effect of virtual reality on pain and function as measured by self-reported outcome measures.”
Enhancing Body Image in Chronic Pain: A Case Study Utilizing Virtual Reality
Moreno, V. N., Herrero, R., Zamora, Á., Miragall, M., & Baños, R. (2025) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.23784 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Effectiveness and adverse effects of immersive technologies used for rehabilitation of patients with non-specific neck pain: a systematic review
Kostka, J., Zawadzka-Fabijan, A., Działa, D., Bruc, B., Pruszyńska, M., Figas, G., O’Connor, R. J., Malmivaara, A. O. V., & Kujawa, J. E. (2025) · Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine · doi:10.2340/jrm.v57.42108 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Efficacy of Various Virtual Reality Exposure Therapies for Chronic Low Back Pain: Systematic Review and Network Meta-Analysis
Wu, L., Liu, X., Yin, Q. R., Yao, T., & Li, Y. (2026) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/90289 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“…among various VR games; however, most studies classify VR interventions based on hardware characteristics, such as immersive, semi-immersive, and nonimmersive, rather than differentiating intervention effects according to physical engagement levels and specific therapeutic targets [11,18,20-25].”
Pain-VR : Virtual Reality for Pain Relief
Sowmya, G., Rao, M. K., SaiChaitanya, B., Kumar, R. S., & Bala, M. R. (2025) · International Conference on Augmented Intelligence and Sustainable Systems (ICAISS) · doi:10.1109/icaiss61471.2025.11041860 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Conventional Cervical Exercises Compared with a Mixed-Reality-Based Game in Asymptomatic Subjects: An Exploratory Crossover Pilot Study
Díaz-Sáez, M. C., Navarro-Fernández, G., Fernández‐Carnero, J., Garrigós-Pedrón, M., Romero, J. P., & Beltrán-Alacreu, H. (2022) · Applied Sciences · doi:10.3390/app12073657 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Effect of virtual reality-based operating room simulation on surgical fear, hemodynamic parameters, and perception of care: A randomized controlled trial
Parlak, E. A., Erer, İ., & İyigün, E. (2025) · Clinical Simulation in Nursing · doi:10.1016/j.ecns.2025.101845 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Augmented and Virtual Reality in Sports Trauma Training and Rehabilitation
Li, J. H., Hao, L., Chen, X., Yang, X., Li, W., MingKe, Y., & JunQiao, L. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-36801-1_315-1 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Feasibility, acceptability, patient experience, and preliminary efficacy of a virtual reality guided imagery intervention for chronic pain
Doan, L., Recasens, M., Lake, J. I., Miller, I., Vierra, E., Richeimer, S. H., Yao, I., Junghaenel, D. U., & Weinstein, F. M. (2025) · Frontiers in Digital Health · doi:10.3389/fdgth.2025.1505861 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Research evidence suggests that virtual reality (VR) is safe (11) and effective for managing acute pain and chronic pain (12 – 16), including for severe levels of pain (17).”
The Effectiveness of Virtual Reality in Managing Labor Pain: A Systematic Review and Meta-AnalysisPreprint
Najjariasl, P., Dalvandi, K., Shabani, F., Zamanian, H., & Ramezani, A. (2024) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-4724968/v1 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
3D Displays: Their Evolution, Inherent Challenges & Future PerspectivesPreprint
Pan, X., Xu, X., Dev, S., & Campbell, A. G. (2021) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2105.08390
“Furthermore, although ears, there still a lot of research reported that users the headsets are more and more lightweight in recent y will suffer neck aches and sicknesses if they wear the headset for a long time [27][28].”
Background
Virtual reality — new possibilities in the treatment of pain
Trepalina, T. S., & Yakupov, E. Z. (2021) · Neurology Bulletin · doi:10.17816/nb71266
FDA Approves Virtual Reality System for Treating Lower Back Pain
Hurley, D. (2022) · Neurology Today · doi:10.1097/01.nt.0000817628.50224.86
Immediate effect of virtual reality intervention on task related neck pain and muscle fatigue in dentists
Menon, S., Dabholkar, T. Y., & Shripad, I. (2023) · International Journal of Community Medicine and Public Health · doi:10.18203/2394-6040.ijcmph20232035
Examining the feasibility, acceptability and preliminary efficacy of an Immersive Virtual Reality-Assisted Lower Limb Strength Training for Knee Osteoarthritis (VRiKnee): A Mixed-Method Pilot Randomized Controlled Trial (Preprint)Preprint
Lo, H. H. M., Ng, M. S. N., Fong, H. P.-Y., Lai, H. H. K., Wang, B., Wong, S. Y. S., & Sit, R. W. S. (2023) · doi:10.2196/preprints.52563
Pain Education and Virtual Reality Improves Pain, Pain-related Fear of Movement, and Trunk Kinematics in Individuals With Persistent Low Back Pain
Window, P., McGrath, M., Harvie, D. S., Smits, E. J., Johnston, V., Murdoch, M., & Russell, T. G. (2024) · Clinical Journal of Pain · doi:10.1097/ajp.0000000000001221
AnReal: Towards an extended reality, low-cost system for kinesiophobiaPreprint
Herskovic, V., Arredondo, D., Torres, G., Vidal, C., & Campos, M. (2024) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-4697453/v1
The analgesic effects of virtual reality therapy and its electrophysiological mechanisms: evidence from meta-analysis
Zhou, L., Zhang, J., Zeng, M., & Zhang, L. (2024) · Chinese Science Bulletin (Chinese Version) · doi:10.1360/tb-2024-0470
Virtual Reality and Chronic Pain
Canieso, D., & Perez, J. M. (2025) · doi:10.1002/9781394278480.ch15
Virtual Reality Technologies in the Correction of Motor Disorders and Kinesiophobia in Patients with Musculoskeletal Pathology
Pogonchenkova, I. V., Makarova, M. R., Somov, D. A., Skorobogatyth, N. V., Golovkina, M. A., & Popikhina, E. E. (2025) · Bulletin of the Medical Institute REAVIZ (REHABILITATION DOCTOR AND HEALTH) · doi:10.20340/vmi-rvz.2025.1.clin.4
Augmented and Virtual Reality in Sports Trauma Training and Rehabilitation
Li, J. H., Hao, L., Chen, X., Yang, X., Li, W., MingKe, Y., & JunQiao, L. (2025) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-58351-3_315
WITHDRAWN: Virtual Reality-Assisted Rehabilitation for Patients with Chronic Musculoskeletal Disorders: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis
Liu, H.-W., & Lee, S. (2025) · Journal of Orthopaedics · doi:10.1016/j.jor.2025.05.038
Retracted
Virtual reality on upper limb kinesiophobia in post-stroke
Dhanusia, S., S, A. P. Y., Suganthirababu, P., Vanitha, J., Kumar, P., & Srinivasan, V. (2025) · Fisioterapia em Movimento · doi:10.1590/fm.2025.38302
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Authors: Ahern, M. M., Dean, L. V., Stoddard, C. C., Agrawal, A., Kim, K., Cook, C. E., & Narciso Garcia, A.
Affiliations: Duke University (US)
Division of Physical Therapy Duke Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Duke University Durham North Carolina U.S.A.
Corresponding author: Ahern, Meghan M.
ORCID: Ahern, Meghan M.
Kim, Kimin
Cook, Chad E.
Narciso Garcia, Alessandra
Venue: Pain Practice
Publisher: Wiley
Published: 2020-05-21
Volume: 20
Issue: 6
Pages: 656-675
ISSN: 1530-7085 (ISSN-L)
1533-2500
DOI: 10.1111/papr.12885
OpenAlex: W3011255466
Cited by: 108
References: 56
Citations by year: 2026: 12 · 2025: 23 · 2024: 18 · 2023: 21 · 2022: 12 · 2021: 18 · 2020: 4
FWCI: 1.80
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: onlinelibrary.wiley.com/termsAndConditions#vor (vor)
Locations: Pain Practice (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Health Sciences › Medicine › Pharmacology › Musculoskeletal pain and rehabilitation
Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Human-Computer Interaction › Virtual Reality Applications and Impacts
Health Sciences › Medicine › Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine › Pain Management and Treatment
Keywords: virtual reality, spinal pain, chronic low back pain, neck pain, pain intensity, disability, kinesiophobia, proprioceptive training, lumbar stabilization exercise, physiotherapy, balance, patient satisfaction
MeSH terms: Virtual Reality, Back Pain, Humans, Neck Pain, Chronic Pain

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The effectiveness of virtual reality in patients with spinal pain: a systematic review and meta-analysis

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