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Blaming a few bad apples to save a threatened barrel: the system-justifying function of conspiracy theories
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This research demonstrates that conspiracy theories—often represented as subversive alternatives to establishment narratives—may bolster, rather than undermine, support for the social status quo when its legitimacy is under threat. A pilot study (N = 98) found a positive relationship between conspiracy belief and satisfaction with the status quo. In Study 1 (N = 120), threatening (vs. affirming) the status quo in British society caused participants to endorse conspiracy theories. In Study 2 (N = 159), exposure to conspiracy theories increased satisfaction with the British social system after this had been experimentally threatened. In Study 3 (N = 109), this effect was mediated by the tendency for participants exposed (vs. not exposed) to conspiracy theories to attribute societal problems relatively more strongly to small groups of people rather than systemic causes. By blaming tragedies, disasters, and social problems on the actions of a malign few, conspiracy theories can divert attention from the inherent limitations of social systems.
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“Republicans are more likely than Democrats to endorse Qanon -the far-right theory that a Deep State is conspiring against President Trump [53].”
From The dark side of social movements: social identity, non-conformity, and the lure of conspiracy theories (2020) · cites this paper as [53]
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Understanding Conspiracy Theories
Douglas, K. M., Uscinski, J. E., Sutton, R. M., Cichocka, A., Nefes, T., Ang, C. S., & Deravi, F. (2019) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/pops.12568 · Cited by 1,511
The Psychology of Conspiracy Theories
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“In one such design, Jolley, Douglas, and Sutton (2017) exposed people to threats to the legitimacy of their social system.”
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“This finding is important because it speaks to a major difference between just world and system justification theories (Jost & van der Toorn, 2012). Whereas Lerner (1980) argued that genuine concerns for justice (inspired by the ‘justice motive’) should be positively associated with the belief in a just Figure 8.”
BackgroundInfluentialDouglas, K. M. (2021) · Group Processes & Intergroup Relations · doi:10.1177/1368430220982068 · Cited by 404
“For instance, people are more likely to believe in conspiracy theories if they need to feel unique compared to others (Lantian et al., 2017), feel a need to belong (Graeupner & Coman, 2017), or feel that their group is underappreciated (Cichocka et al., 2016) or under threat (Jolley et al., 2018).”
BackgroundBelief in conspiracy theories: Basic principles of an emerging research domain
van Prooijen, J., & Douglas, K. M. (2018) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2530 · Cited by 483
Conspiracy mentality and political orientation across 26 countries
Imhoff, R., Zimmer, F., Klein, O., António, J. H. C., Babińska, M., Bangerter, A., Bilewicz, M., Blanuša, N., Bovan, K., Bužarovska, R., et al. (2022) · Nature Human Behaviour · doi:10.1038/s41562-021-01258-7 · Cited by 274
Douglas, K. M., & Sutton, R. M. (2022) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-032420-031329 · Cited by 376
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Conspiracy Theories and the People Who Believe Them
(2018) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190844073.001.0001 · Cited by 294
Imhoff, R., Dieterle, L., & Lamberty, P. (2021) · Social Psychological and Personality Science · doi:10.1177/1948550619896491 · Cited by 208
An Existential Threat Model of Conspiracy Theories
van Prooijen, J. (2019) · European Psychologist · doi:10.1027/1016-9040/a000381 · Cited by 237
Sternisko, A., Cichocka, A., & Van Bavel, J. J. (2020) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2020.02.007 · Cited by 197
Belief in conspiracy theories and intentions to engage in everyday crime
Jolley, D., Douglas, K. M., Leite, A. C., & Schrader, T. (2019) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjso.12311 · Cited by 186
Mistrust and misinformation: A two-component, socio-epistemic model of belief in conspiracy theories
Pierre, J. M. (2020) · Journal of Social and Political Psychology · doi:10.5964/jspp.v8i2.1362 · Cited by 202
Storytelling as Adaptive Collective Sensemaking
Bietti, L. M., Tilston, O., & Bangerter, A. (2019) · Topics in Cognitive Science · doi:10.1111/tops.12358 · Cited by 205
Why conspiracy theories matter: A social psychological analysis
Douglas, K. M., & Sutton, R. M. (2018) · European Review of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/10463283.2018.1537428 · Cited by 114
“(Jolley et al., 2018, Study 3, N = 166).”
Jetten, J., Peters, K., Álvarez, B., Casara, B. G. S., Dare, M., Kirkland, K., Sánchez‐Rodríguez, Á., Selvanathan, H. P., Sprong, S. L., Tanjitpiyanond, P., et al. (2021) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/pops.12800 · Cited by 114
Emotion and Politics: Noncognitive Psychological Biases in Public Opinion
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The cultural dimension of intergroup conspiracy theories
van Prooijen, J., & Song, M. (2020) · British Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjop.12471 · Cited by 118
“…power distance values is consistentwith other findings relating conspiracy beliefs to feelings of powerlessness (e.g., Abalakina-Paap et al., 1999; Jolley et al., 2018; Van Prooijen, 2017) and authoritarianism (Imhoff&Bruder, 2014; Swami, 2012), yet expands these previous findings to a cultural…”
ResultIndividual, intergroup and nation-level influences on belief in conspiracy theories
Hornsey, M., Bierwiaczonek, K., Sassenberg, K., & Douglas, K. M. (2022) · Nature Reviews Psychology · doi:10.1038/s44159-022-00133-0 · Cited by 86
Plenta, P. (2020) · Contemporary Politics · doi:10.1080/13569775.2020.1781332 · Cited by 97
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Wood, M. J., & Gray, D. (2019) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2018.09.036 · Cited by 89
The role of system identity threat in conspiracy theory endorsement
Federico, C. M., Williams, A. L., & Vitriol, J. A. (2018) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2495 · Cited by 85
Cisłak, A., Marchlewska, M., Wójcik, A. D., Śliwiński, K., Molenda, Z., Szczepańska, D., & Cichocka, A. K. (2021) · Group Processes & Intergroup Relations · doi:10.1177/1368430220959451 · Cited by 72
“In this latter case, conspiracy theories identify a small group of wrongdoers who do not necessarily represent ingroup members but are thought to work for corrupt elites or corporations willing to undermine the ingroup to realize their own interests (Jolley et al., 2018).”
BackgroundFrom bad to worse: Avoidance coping with stress increases conspiracy beliefs
Marchlewska, M., Green, R., Cichocka, A. K., Molenda, Z., & Douglas, K. M. (2021) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjso.12494 · Cited by 71
Psychological benefits of believing conspiracy theories
van Prooijen, J. (2022) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2022.101352 · Cited by 70
Contemporary trends in psychological research on conspiracy beliefs. A systematic review
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Who Believes in Conspiracy Theories in Great Britain and Europe?
Drochon, H. H. (2018) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190844073.003.0022 · Cited by 62
Biddlestone, M., Green, R., Douglas, K. M., Azevedo, F., Sutton, R. M., & Cichocka, A. K. (2022) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/rxjqc · Cited by 55
Frenken, M., Bilewicz, M., & Imhoff, R. (2022) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/pops.12822 · Cited by 66
An Improved Question Format for Measuring Conspiracy Beliefs
Clifford, S., Kim, Y., & Sullivan, B. W. (2019) · Public Opinion Quarterly · doi:10.1093/poq/nfz049 · Cited by 45
Belief in conspiracy theories and non-normative behavior
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de Oliveira, T. M. (2020) · Fronteiras - estudos midiáticos · doi:10.4013/fem.2020.221.03 · Cited by 44
Just world beliefs, personal success and beliefs in conspiracy theories
Furnham, A. F. (2021) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-021-01576-z · Cited by 44
Injustice Without Evidence: The Unique Role of Conspiracy Theories in Social Justice Research
van Prooijen, J. (2021) · Social Justice Research · doi:10.1007/s11211-021-00376-x · Cited by 48
“…in conspiracy theories increases following threats to control (Van Prooijen & Acker, 2015; Whitson & Galinsky, 2008), threats to the status quo (Jolley et al., 2018), impactful and negative societal events (Van Prooijen & Van Dijk, 2014), experiences of social exclusion (Poon et al., 2020),…”
BackgroundThe History of Conspiracy Theory Research
Bütter, M., & Knight, P. (2018) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190844073.003.0002 · Cited by 47
Economic inequality and conspiracy theories
Jetten, J., Peters, K., & Casara, B. G. S. (2022) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2022.101358 · Cited by 39
Wang, H., & van Prooijen, J. (2022) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.3996 · Cited by 38
Empowerment as a Tool to Reduce Belief in Conspiracy Theories
van Prooijen, J. (2018) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190844073.003.0030 · Cited by 37
Conspiracy Theories and Philosophy
Dentith, M. R. X. (2018) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190844073.003.0006 · Cited by 38
DiFonzo, N. (2018) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190844073.003.0017 · Cited by 34
Group-oriented motivations underlying conspiracy theories
van Prooijen, J. (2024) · Group Processes & Intergroup Relations · doi:10.1177/13684302241240696 · Cited by 35
“…the societal and political system that citizens live in. Threatening the societal and political status quo increases con-spiracy thinking; moreover, exposing participants to a conspiracy theory increases system justification when the status quo is threatened (Jolley et al., 2018; Mao et al., 2021).”
Conspiracy theories as opportunistic attributions of power
Nera, K., Bertin, P., & Klein, O. (2022) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2022.101381 · Cited by 34
The complex relationship between conspiracy belief and the politics of social change
Federico, C. M. (2022) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2022.101354 · Cited by 34
Conspiratorial Thinking and Dueling Fact Perceptions
Marietta, M., & Barker, D. C. (2018) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190844073.003.0014 · Cited by 32
Science through a tribal lens: A group-based account of polarization over scientific facts
Fasce, A., Adrián‐Ventura, J., Lewandowsky, S., & van der Linden, S. (2021) · Group Processes & Intergroup Relations · doi:10.1177/13684302211050323 · Cited by 32
“Besides its function to justify the legitimacy of ingroup identity and values (Jolley et al., 2018), the prototypical form of intergroup representation that lies at the root of conspiracy theories also provides perceived epistemic justification for antiscientific conceptions of climate change, vaccination, AIDS, and G…”
BackgroundStrömbäck, J., Broda, E., Bouchafra, S., Johansson, S., Rettenegger, G., & Lindgren, E. (2022) · European Journal of Communication · doi:10.1177/02673231221122951 · Cited by 47
“In general, groups that are characterized by a strong ingroup identity and a perceived threat from an outgroup are more likely to hold conspiracy beliefs (Cichocka et al., 2016; Jolley et al., 2018; Van Prooijen and Douglas, 2018).”
BackgroundRäikkä, J., & Basham, L. (2018) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190844073.003.0011 · Cited by 32
Zelenkauskaitė, A. (2021) · University of Michigan Press eBooks · doi:10.3998/mpub.12237294 · Cited by 32
Conspiracy Theories in Post-Soviet Russia
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Polls, Plots, and Party Politics
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(2018) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190844073.003.0001 · Cited by 29
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de Oliveira, T. M., Wang, Z., & Xu, J. (2022) · Online Media and Global Communication · doi:10.1515/omgc-2022-0005 · Cited by 25
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Douglas, K. M., Sutton, R. M., van Lissa, C. V., Stroebe, W., Kreienkamp, J., Agostini, M., Bélanger, J., Gützkow, B., Abakoumkin, G., Khaiyom, J. H. A., et al. (2023) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2968 · Cited by 20
How Conspiracy Theories Spread
DeWitt, D., Atkinson, M., & Wegner, D. (2018) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190844073.003.0021 · Cited by 24
Sotola, L. K., & Credé, M. (2022) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2858 · Cited by 28
Gkinopoulos, T., & Mari, S. (2022) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/jasp.12923 · Cited by 23
What Does It Mean for a Conspiracy Theory to Be a ‘Theory’?
Duetz, J. C. M. (2023) · Social Epistemology · doi:10.1080/02691728.2023.2172697 · Cited by 22
“One alleged feature of belief in conspiracy theories is the idea that the masses (or ‘sheeple’) are gullible for believing the official theory to be an established account without any critical reflection (Nattrass 2012; Jolley, Douglas, and Sutton 2018).”
What We Mean When We Say “Conspiracy Theory”
Walker, J. (2018) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190844073.003.0003 · Cited by 23
Conspiracy Theories and Religion
Robertson, D. G. C., & Dyrendal, A. (2018) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190844073.003.0028 · Cited by 21
Górska, P., Marchlewska, M., Szczepańska, D., Molenda, Z., Michalski, P., & Furman, A. (2022) · The Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/00224545.2022.2111250 · Cited by 24
“…et al., 1999; Jolley & Douglas, 2014b), feelings of relative deprivation (Bilewicz et al., 2013), threats to the fairness of the political system (Jolley et al., 2018), one’s feelings of self-worth (Cichocka, Marchlewska, Golec de Zavala et al., 2016), and in-group identity (Cichocka,…”
Disinformation and Conspiracy Theories in the Age of COVID-19
Pereira, P. S., Silveira, A. D. S., & Pereira, A. (2020) · Frontiers in Sociology · doi:10.3389/fsoc.2020.560681 · Cited by 24
“Conspiracy theories usually have a system-justifying function of supporting the status quo by redirecting the public attention toward imaginary perils and distracting from genuine threats (Eco, 2014; Jolley et al., 2018).”
BackgroundMao, J., Zeng, Z., Yang, S., Guo, Y., & van Prooijen, J. (2023) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/pops.12924 · Cited by 20
Wood, M. J., & Douglas, K. M. (2018) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190844073.003.0016 · Cited by 22
Rejection of the status quo: Conspiracy theories and preference for alternative political systems
Papaioannou, K., Pantazi, M., & van Prooijen, J. (2024) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjso.12754 · Cited by 18
Sternisko, A., Cichocka, A. K., & Bavel, J. J. V. (2020) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/wvqes · Cited by 18
Hetzel, N., Klawier, T., Prochazka, F., & Schweiger, W. (2022) · Studies in Communication and Media · doi:10.5771/2192-4007-2022-4-508 · Cited by 16
Atkinson, M., & DeWitt, D. (2018) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190844073.003.0008 · Cited by 17
McKenzie-McHarg, A. (2018) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190844073.003.0004 · Cited by 18
Media Marginalization of Racial Minorities
Orr, M., & Husting, G. (2018) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190844073.003.0005 · Cited by 16
Determinants of belief in conspiracy theories about the war in Ukraine among youth
Schuster, J., Fobel, L., & Kolleck, N. (2023) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/pops.12949 · Cited by 11
On the Democratic Problem of Conspiracy Politics
Moore, A. (2018) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190844073.003.0007 · Cited by 14
COVID-19: Belief in Conspiracy Theories and the Need for Quarantine
Егорова, М., Parshikova, O. V., Chertkova, Y. D., Staroverov, V. M., & Mitina, O. V. (2020) · Psychology in Russia State of Art · doi:10.11621/pir.2020.0401 · Cited by 14
Kraemer, T., Weiger, W. H., Trang, S. T.-N., & Trenz, M. (2022) · Journal of Product Innovation Management · doi:10.1111/jpim.12646 · Cited by 16
How does economic inequality shape conspiracy theories? Empirical evidence from China
Zeng, Z., Tian, C., Mao, J., van Prooijen, J., Zhang, Y., Yang, S., Xie, X., & Guo, Y. (2023) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjso.12689 · Cited by 13
Abadi, D., van Prooijen, J. W., Krouwel, A., & Fischer, A. (2024) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2024.2360584 · Cited by 10
“Threats have also been linked to increased conspi-racy beliefs (for overviews, see Douglas et al., 2019; Jolley et al., 2018; Kofta et al., 2020; Poon et al., 2020; Van Prooijen, 2020; Van Prooijen & Acker, 2015), but no studies to date have explicitly distinguished between different forms of…”
Kont, J., Elving, W. J. L., Broersma, M., & Bozdağ, Ç. (2024) · Communications · doi:10.1515/commun-2023-0078 · Cited by 17
“Here, all results link higher perceived threat and feelings of exclusion to higher conspiracy theory belief (e. g., Jolley et al., 2018).”
BackgroundEshel, Y., Kimhi, S., Marciano, H., & Adini, B. B. (2022) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2022.04.042 · Cited by 12
“Empirical evidence shows that conspiracy theories are positively correlated with anxiety (Grzesiak-Feldman, 2013), supported by the perception that society is under threat (Jolley et al., 2018), and that fundamental social values are deteriorating (Federico et al., 2018).”
Engaging with Conspiracy Believers
Douglas, K. M., Sutton, R. M., Biddlestone, M., Green, R., & Toribio‐Flórez, D. (2024) · Review of Philosophy and Psychology · doi:10.1007/s13164-024-00741-0 · Cited by 14
Imhoff, R., Dieterle, L., & Lamberty, P. (2019) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/v4pb9 · Cited by 7
Conspiracy Beliefs and the Perception of Intergroup Inequalities
Nera, K., Douglas, K. M., Bertin, P., Delouvée, S., & Klein, O. (2024) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/01461672241279085 · Cited by 11
“Mao et al. (2023) have shown that conspiracy theories blaming the national ingroup’s authorities reduce system justification, whereas conspiracy theories accusing powerful outgroups (e.g., the United States in a Chinese participants sample) foster system justification (see also Jolley et al., 2018).”
Conspiracy Theories in U.S. History
Olmstead, K. S. (2018) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190844073.003.0019 · Cited by 10
Lewandowsky, S. (2018) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190844073.003.0010 · Cited by 12
Martini, S., Guidi, M., Olmastroni, F., Basile, L., Borri, R., & Isernia, P. (2021) · Italian Political Science Review/Rivista Italiana di Scienza Politica · doi:10.1017/ipo.2021.26 · Cited by 11
“Then, conspiracism seems to have an emotional basis, being correlated with anxiety (Grzesiak-Feldman, 2013) and the perception that society is under threat (Jolley et al., 2018).”
BackgroundMethodMeuer, M., Oeberst, A., & Imhoff, R. (2021) · International Review of Social Psychology · doi:10.5334/irsp.587 · Cited by 9
Conspiracy Stress or Relief? Learned Helplessness and Conspiratorial Thinking
Farhart, C. E., Miller, J. M., & Saunders, K. L. (2022) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197578384.003.0011 · Cited by 10
Staszak, S., Maciejowska, J., Urjasz, W., Misiuro, T., & Cudo, A. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph192214789 · Cited by 9
“Moreover, there is some evidence that the need for predictability and closed-mindedness may predict beliefs in conspiracy theories [31].”
BackgroundInfluentialThe Conspiratorial Style in Turkish Politics
Nefes, T. S. (2018) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190844073.003.0026 · Cited by 9
Teorias da conspiração: significados em contexto brasileiro
Rezende, A. T., da Silva, F. M. D. S. M., Ribeiro, M. G. C., Loureto, G. D. L., Neta, O. F. D. S., & Gouveia, V. V. (2019) · Estudos de Psicologia (Campinas) · doi:10.1590/1982-0275201936e180010 · Cited by 12
Citizen engagement in the "post-truth era"
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Conspiracy Thinking, Tolerance, and Democracy
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Metadata
- Authors
- Jolley, D., Douglas, K. M., & Sutton, R. M.
- Affiliations
- University of Staffordshire (GB)
- University of Kent (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Jolley, Daniel
- Douglas, Karen M.
- Sutton, Robbie M.
- Venue
- Political Psychology
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2017-02-18
- Volume
- 39
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 465-478
- ISSN
- 0162-895X (ISSN-L)
- 1467-9221
- OpenAlex
- W2589123060
- Cited by
- 170
- References
- 59
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 11 · 2024: 17 · 2023: 13 · 2022: 42 · 2021: 18 · 2020: 14 · 2019: 7 · 2018: 42 · 2017: 1
- FWCI
- 44.83
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- Licence
- Locations
- Political Psychology (publishedVersion)
- Staffordshire Online Repository (Staffordshire University) (acceptedVersion)
- Kent Academic Repository (University of Kent) (acceptedVersion)
- Repository@Nottingham (University of Nottingham) (acceptedVersion, other-oa)
- Repository@Nottingham (University of Nottingham) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Northumbria Research Link (Northumbria University) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Misinformation and Its Impacts
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Terrorism, Counterterrorism, and Political Violence
- Keywords
- conspiracy theories, system justification, status quo, social legitimacy, blame attribution, British society
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