The DOI matches its Crossref record; 152 of the 152 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 47 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.
The Intention–Behavior Gap
Open accessAbstract
Bitter personal experience and meta‐analysis converge on the conclusion that people do not always do the things that they intend to do. This paper synthesizes research on intention–behavior relations to address questions such as: How big is the intention–behavior gap? When are intentions more or less likely to get translated into action? What kinds of problems prevent people from realizing their intentions? And what strategies show promise in closing the intention–behavior gap and helping people do the things that they intend to do?
Overview
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This review synthesizes evidence on the intention–behavior gap, concluding that intentions are translated into action approximately one-half of the time and that “inclined abstainers” mainly drive the gap. It identifies intention qualities, self-regulatory problems across goal pursuit, and tools such as if-then plans and progress monitoring that can help close the gap.
Key findings
- Meta-analytic evidence shows intentions predict behavior with a large sample-weighted average correlation (*r*+ = 0.53; Sheeran, 2002, 422 studies), but experimentally changing intentions produces only a small-to-medium change in behavior (*d*+ = .36; Webb & Sheeran, 2006); the gap is mainly due to people who intend to act but do not (“inclined abstainers”).
- Intention realization depends on goal dimensions, the basis of intention, and intention properties; intention stability is described as the best indicator of whether an intention will be realized, and stable intentions moderated intention–behavior consistency even across measures taken 6 years apart (Conner, Norman, & Bell, 2002).
- Self-regulatory problems occur in initiating, maintaining, and closing goal pursuit; for example, after a delay of just 5 seconds, 8% of young, healthy participants forgot to enact an intended behavior, rising to 24% when attention was divided (Einstein et al., 2003).
- If-then plans improved goal attainment and behavioral performance compared with merely forming intentions (*d*+ = 0.65; 94 studies; Gollwitzer & Sheeran, 2006), and progress-monitoring interventions produced a large increase in monitoring frequency (*d*+ = 1.98) that led to a small-to-medium behavior change (*d*+ = .40; 138 interventions; Harkin et al., 2016).
Methods
- Design: narrative review/synthesis of research on intention–behavior relations, not a primary empirical study.
- Data or sample: synthesizes prior correlational studies, experiments, meta-analyses, and statistical simulations; no original sample or dataset is reported.
- Main analysis: organizes evidence around (a) qualities of intention, (b) self-regulatory problems and tasks in realizing intentions across initiation, maintenance, and closure, and (c) tools for intention realization.
Limitations
- The paper states that research on goal dimensions has not yet been integrated with research on the basis of intention or studies of intention properties, and that formal tests of moderation of the intention–behavior relation remain to be undertaken for many interventions.
- The paper notes debate about the magnitude and interpretation of the ego-depletion effect and more cautious assessments of some self-control, glucose, and training approaches.
- Evident from the text: as a narrative review, it does not report systematic search or selection criteria or a formal meta-analysis, so its conclusions rest on the cited literature.
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
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Claims the paper makes
0 of 47 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“not always do the things that they intend to do”
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“Numerous correlational studies indicate that intentions predict behavior.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Sheeran (2002)
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“found a 'large' sample-weighted average correlation between intentions measured at one time-point and measures of behavior taken at a subsequent time-point ( r+ = 0.53)”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Sheeran (2002)
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“keeping track of progress (e.g., using a diary) increases the likelihood that intentions are achieved”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Harkin et al., 2016
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesNone of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“do not consistently moderate the intention-behavior relationship”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Armitage & Conner, 2001
- Not checked yetcites Sheeran, 2002
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesThe paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Experience with a behavior, or how often a person has performed the relevant behavior in the past, appears to have paradoxical effects on intention-behavior relations.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“changing intentions does not guarantee behavior change”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Fife-Schaw, Sheeran, & Norman, 2007
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesThe paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Even if people do remember their intention, good opportunities to act may be missed.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesNone of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Intentions based more on feelings about performing the behavior (affective attitudes) than on thoughts about the likely consequences of acting (cognitive attitudes) are also associated with improved prediction of behavior”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Conner et al., 2016
- Not checked yetcites Keer et al., Conner, Putte, & Neijens, 2014
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“optimistic goal setting can constitute a self-control strategy that helps people to deal with obstacles during goal pursuit”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Zhang and Fishbach (2010)
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes
- It may state two separate claims as one. 13
- Probably not a substantial claim. 3
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Goal pursuit can also be derailed by competing goals, bad habits, and disruptive thoughts and feelings.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Forgetting to act is commonplace and has been implicated in failures to take medication as planned”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites O'Carroll et al., 2014
- Not checked yetcites Zogg et al., 2012
- Not checked yetcites Corradi et al., 2013
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“greater feelings of moral obligation and anticipated regret about failing to act increase the likelihood that intentions are enacted”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Abraham & Sheeran, 2004
- Not checked yetcites Conner et al., 2006
- Not checked yetcites Godin, Conner, & Sheeran, 2005
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The nature of the focal goal, the basis of intention, and properties of intention each influence the quality of the respective intention and its likelihood of enactment.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“these processes alone do not guarantee intention realization”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Gollwitzer & Sheeran, 2006, 2009
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Set goals often are over-optimistic which can reduce the likelihood that they are achieved.”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Self-regulatory problems may be encountered during different phases of goal pursuit, and include problems (a) getting started, (b) keeping ongoing goal pursuit on track, and (c) bringing goal pursuit to a successful close”
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The third key problem that people may encounter when striving to achieve their intentions is failing to bring goal pursuit to a successful close.”
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If-then plans, interventions that prompt progress monitoring, and more recent training approaches should each prove helpful in accomplishing these tasks.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The various problems that create a gap between intentions and behavior are neither inevitable nor irresolvable, however.”
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The intention-behavior gap is large -current evidence suggests that intentions get translated into action approximately one-half of the time.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes? Based: unclearIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Forming implementation intentions has also been shown to help to overcome a variety of unwanted influences including distractions”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Wieber et al., 2015
- Not checked yetcites Armitage & Arden, 2012
- Not checked yetcites Adriaanse et al., 2011
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Forming if-then plans is a highly effective means of accomplishing self-regulatory tasks and reducing the intention-behavior gap.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Gollwitzer & Sheeran, 2006
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“three tasks must be accomplished to secure intention realization -people need to initiate, maintain, and close goal pursuit”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“First, the intention to use a treatment target or delivery mode does not fully translate to actual utilization behavior, i.e., the intention-behavior gap (60).”
From Mental health services for German university students: acceptance of intervention targets and preference for delivery modes (2024) · cites this paper as [60]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“first, Canadian students with high self-reported symptoms use more health care services (60).”
From Mental health services for German university students: acceptance of intervention targets and preference for delivery modes (2024) · cites this paper as [60]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“Additionally, there is a widely recognized intention–behavior gap, where positive intentions are not always antecedent for actual behavior [91].”
From Explaining adults’ mental health help-seeking through the lens of the theory of planned behavior: A scoping review (2022) · cites this paper as [91]
Citations
Cites
The theory of planned behavior
Ajzen, I. (1991) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1016/0749-5978(91)90020-t · Cited by 90,587
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037//0003-066x.55.1.68 · Cited by 54,599
The "what" and "why" of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1207/s15327965pli1104_01 · Cited by 34,210
Efficacy of the Theory of Planned Behaviour: A meta‐analytic review
Armitage, C. J., & Conner, M. (2001) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1348/014466601164939 · Cited by 9,970
Higgins, E. T. (1997) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.52.12.1280 · Cited by 6,775
Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans.
Gollwitzer, P. M. (1999) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.54.7.493 · Cited by 5,478
Ego depletion: Is the active self a limited resource?
Baumeister, R. F., Bratslavsky, E., Muraven, M., & Tice, D. M. (1998) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.74.5.1252 · Cited by 5,312
Social psychology: handbook of basic principles
(1997) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.34-3595 · Cited by 4,970
The theory of planned behaviour: Reactions and reflections
Ajzen, I. (2011) · Psychology and Health · doi:10.1080/08870446.2011.613995 · Cited by 4,846
Self-regulation and depletion of limited resources: Does self-control resemble a muscle?
Muraven, M., & Baumeister, R. F. (2000) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.126.2.247 · Cited by 4,510
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 8
- 10.1080/02699930244000291 · DOI
- Fujita K., 2012, Goal‐directed Behavior, 85
- Grant H., 2009, The Psychology of Goals, 77
- 10.1111/j.2044-8309.1993.tb00997.xfa · DOI
- Liberman N., 2009, The Psychology of Goals, 277
- Moskowitz G. B., 2009, The Psychology of Goals
- Sheeran P., Health behaviour change: Moving from observation to intervention, Annual Review of Psychology
- 10.1080/10463283.2012.718134 · DOI · Paper page
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Increasing Vaccination: Putting Psychological Science Into Action
Brewer, N. T., Chapman, G. B., Rothman, A. J., Leask, J., & Kempe, A. (2017) · Psychological Science in the Public Interest · doi:10.1177/1529100618760521 · Cited by 1,233
Onwezen, M. C., Bouwman, E. P., Reinders, M. J., & Dagevos, H. (2020) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2020.105058 · Cited by 1,093
Mertens, S., Herberz, M., Hahnel, U. J. J., & Brosch, T. (2021) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2107346118 · Cited by 864
“Even if people make a deliberate and potentially rational decision to change their behavior, limited attentional capacities and a lack of self-control may prevent this decision from actually translating into the desired actions, a phenomenon described as the intention–behavior gap (26).”
BackgroundUnderstanding the intention-behavior gap: The role of intention strength
Conner, M., & Norman, P. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.923464 · Cited by 509
“The observed effects may be attributable to the same goal being of greater difficulty in lower socio-economic status groups due to variations in the opportunities, resources, ability, skills and time and effort required to realize the goal (Sheeran and Webb, 2016; Schüz, 2017).”
BackgroundConsumers’ response to environmentally-friendly food packaging - A systematic review
Ketelsen, M., Janßen, M., & Hamm, U. (2020) · Journal of Cleaner Production · doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.120123 · Cited by 554
Metadata
- Authors
- Sheeran, P., & Webb, T. L.
- Affiliations
- University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (US)
- University of Sheffield (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Sheeran, Paschal
- Venue
- Social and Personality Psychology Compass
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2016-09
- Volume
- 10
- Issue
- 9
- Pages
- 503-518
- ISSN
- 1751-9004 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2519766541
- Semantic Scholar
- 19675f19058b8fe0f0bdc7d17037de0e5e84da42
- Cited by
- 2,185
- References
- 151
- Citations by year
- 2026: 432 · 2025: 333 · 2024: 294 · 2023: 270 · 2022: 253 · 2021: 237 · 2020: 212 · 2019: 88 · 2018: 44 · 2017: 19 · 2016: 3
- FWCI
- 79.11
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- doi.org
- Locations
- Social and Personality Psychology Compass (publishedVersion)
- White Rose Research Online (University of Leeds, The University of Sheffield, University of York) (acceptedVersion)
- Carolina Digital Repository (University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill) (submittedVersion)
- UNC Libraries
- Funders
- John Templeton Foundation (#23145)
- European Research Council (ERC‐2011‐StG‐280515)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Behavioral Health and Interventions
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › General Decision Sciences › Decision-Making and Behavioral Economics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Grit, Self-Efficacy, and Motivation
- Keywords
- intention-behavior gap, behavioral intention, implementation intentions, goal achievement, self-regulation
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